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Outdoor Law: The Applicability of Good Samaritan Laws To Those Trained In Wilderness Medicine

Outdoor Ed — Mon, 04 Oct 2010 04:25:40 GMT

Current Revision posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 10/4/2010 12:25:40 AM

Outdoor Law: The Applicability of Good Samaritan Laws To Those Trained In Wilderness Medicine

Good Samaritan, Rufus Brown

by Rufus Brown Esq.

I. Introduction

Those who are trained in wilderness medicine should be aware of exposure to liability when they use the skills they have learned. This can be a bit more complicated than you might think.

At the heart of the issue is the applicability of Good Samaritan laws. Generally, Good Samaritan laws are designed to provide immunity from liability for those who provide emergency assistance. Every state has a Good Samaritan statute. Also, in Canada, the provinces of Alberta (the Emergency Medical Aid Act), British Columbia (the Good Samaritan Act), Nova Scotia (the Volunteer Services Act), and Ontario (the Good Samaritan Act) have such laws. See, www.canadianlawsite.com/goodsamaritan. The model to be discussed in this paper is the law of the State of Maine, 14 M.R.S.A. Sec. 163 (immunity from civil liability), which is fairly typical. There may be different nuances in the laws of other states or in the referenced provinces in Canada.

II. Background Principles.

Before addressing the requirements for the protection of Good Samaritan laws, it is helpful to have some background.

1. There is generally no duty to render emergency assistance:

In the United States, and in other "common law countries" where the laws defining one's duties primarily come from judicial decisions, there is no duty to help someone who is in need of assistance. Restatement of the Law of Torts, 2d, See. 314. This rule comes from the deeply rooted tradition of the inalienable rights of each individual to be master of his life. Consistent with this tradition, the law can punish you if you interfere with or harm another, but cannot require you to help another, no matter how dire the circumstances. There may be a moral duty to lend assistance, but there is no legal duty to do so.

This principle came under some public attack in connection with the highly publicized death of Princess Diana when, allegedly, the paparazzi photographed her rather than helping her in the tunnel in Paris. Indeed this incident has caused some states to consider changing the law. And there are places where the law is and has been different. For example, Minnesota has a Good Samaritan law that imposes a duty to assist on a person at the scene of an emergency to the extent the person can do so without endangering himself. See Minn. Stat. Sec. 604A.0 1 (2003). Also, in Canada in the Province of Quebec, Chapter I Section I of the Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms (1975) states that "every human being whose life is in peril has a right to assistance" and "[e]very person must come to the aid of anyone whose life is in peril, either personally or calling for aid, by giving him the necessary and immediate physical assistance, unless it involves danger to himself or a third person, or he has another valid reason." Such affirmative duties to provide emergency assistance are also common in European countries that come from a "code" tradition, where rights and obligations primarily are defined by legislation.

2. Exceptions:

Sticking with the law as it exists in the United States, the nent principle that provides background to the Good Samaritan laws is the exception to the general rule that you are not required to lend assistance.

A. For one who is responsible for the emergency:

A person who is responsible for putting another in danger has a legal duty to take reasonable steps under the circumstances to mitigate the harm. Restatement, 2d, See. 314. So, for example, if a camp leader brings a group of children on a hike into a dangerous area and an accident results, that camp leader has a duty to render assistance and may well be liable for failing to do so in a reasonable manner.

B. For one who commences emergency assistance:

The same duty arises if one volunteers assistance in circumstances where the person is not required to do so. Once a person commences assistance that person assumes a duty to carry out the rescue mission with due care. Restatement, 2d, Sec. 323. Tlis rule should be considered when organizations such as summer camps or wilderness medical education programs are considering policy. If someone is hurt at the camp or training site, under circumstances where emergency medical services are available, what should be done until the ambulance arrives?

C. Other circumstances where there is a preexisting duty to provide emergency assistance:

Other circumstances where there is a preexisting duty to provide emergency assistance are when a person stands in a special relationship with another in distress. Restatement, 2d, Sec. 314A. The Restatement lists four circumstances where this duty exists, not meaning to exclude others: a common carrier, an innkeeper, a possessor of land who holds it open to the public, and '.one who is required by law to take, or who voluntarily takes the custody of another under circumstances such as to deprive the other of his normal opportunities for protection." An example of the fourth category is a child in kindergarten. The commentary to the Restatement adds that "the law appears ... to be working slowly toward a recognition of the duty to aid and protect in any relation of dependence ......

Doctors and other health care providers generally have a duty to provide emergency assistance at the premises of a hospital or clinic. Many public officers, such as the police fire fighters, coast guard personnel and park rangers, are generally regarded as having a duty to provide such assistance. An owner of land may have preexisting duties to guests and invitees to keep the premises free of dangers and to provide assistance to those in need of assistance in an emergency. One court held, however, that the duty of a casino owner to its guests was limited to summoning aid and providing first aid measures and did not include a duty to provide medical equipment or medical personnel to respond to medical emergencies. Lundy v. Adamar of New Jersey, 34 F.3d 1173 (3d Cir. 1994).

3. The standard of care for a person providing emergency services:

And there is one more legal principle that comes into play before considering Good Samaritan laws. When emergency assistance is volunteered, in the absence of the Good Samaritan law, or in circumstances where the Good Samaritan law does not apply, the person rendering assistance must exercise the skill and knowledge normally possessed by members of that profession or trade. Restatement, 2d, See. 299-A. So, a doctor who volunteers assistance will be held to the standard of care reasonably expected of a physician. An EMT will be held to the standard of care of EMTS. A, person who has been certified as WFR, will be held tothat level. The volunteer will be exposed to liability suits if the care exercised is less than the standard applicable, and further injury results.

III. The Good Samaritan Law Provides Qualified Immunity.

This is where the Good Samaritan law enters the picture. When applicable, the Good Samaritan law provides immunity to the volunteer for injuries or death resulting from the aid of the volunteer "unless it is established that such injuries or such death were caused willfully, wantonly or recklessly or by gross negligence on the part of the" volunteer. 14 M.R.S.A. Sec. 164. The exceptions are narrow. To come within the exception, the conduct of the person must be so bad as to be equivalent to an intent to hann. An injured party can always claim that volunteer acted willfully, wantonly, etc., but most courts would dismiss such claims without a trial unless it is affirmatively demonstrated by the injured party that the volunteer acted egregiously.

IV. The Requirements that Must be Met to Obtain the Benefits of the Act.

There are generally four requirements that must be met for the benefits of the Good Samaritan statute to apply. In a particular state, these requirements may be worded differently or there may be more or less requirements, but here are the rules generally applicable,

1. A person must act "voluntarily."

What this means is that there must not be a preexisting duty to act in the first place. See the discussion above under Section 11.2 above concerning exceptions to the absence of the duty to provide emergency assistance. What about the status of a trip leader who has been certified at some level by Wilderness Medical Associates or some other certifying organization in wilderness medical procedures, and perhaps may have been required to have the certification as a qualification for the job? If the trip leader is taking campers on a hike and one of the campers is injured for some reason not caused by the trip leader, should he or she get the benefits of the Good Samaritan law? Probably because the current state of the law is that even one with a special relationship to a victim has no duty to actually provide first aid beyond taking prompt action to call for professional assistance. See, "Outdoor Law: Duty to Provide Wilderness First Aid," 22 Maine Bar Journal 222 (2007).

Of course, there may be other grounds to defend against liability, such as charitable immunity that some nonprofit organizations enjoy. Or there may be a special immunity written into a state's Good Samaritan law. For example, in Maine, the Good Samaritan law is extended to protect "members or employees of nonprofit volunteer or governmental ambulance, rescue or emergency units, whether or not a user or service fee may be charged ... and whether or not the members or employees receive salaries or other compensation..." In other states, for example Pennsylvania, the Good Samaritan immunity for nonmedical persons is limited to those who have completed a certified course in firstaid. Pa. Const. Stat. Ann. Sec. 8332 (1978).

2. Without the expectation of monetary or other compensation.

This requirement is really part and parcel of the prior one that makes the act available only for volunteers. However, the mere fact that a person is on the job, being paid, does not disqualify that person from the Good Samaritan law if the emergency assistance is not within the person's job responsibilities and if there is not a special relationship between the rescuer and the victim that creates a preexisting duty to render assistance.

3. In the event of an emergency.

Some statutes, such as the Maine law, go further and extend the benefits of the statute to "rescue assistance" even if the person being rescued is not in imminent peril or hann. See, Estate of Campbell v. Schwartz, 712 N.E.2d 1196 (Ma. 1999).

Regardless of nuances in different states, this requirement is perhaps the most significant of all for a person trained in wilderness first aid. If professional emergency services are readily available, the protection of the Good Samaritan law may not be available to the extent that a volunteer provides more extensive assistance than is necessary pending the arrival of an ambulance. It is for this reason that those trained in wilderness medical procedures should understand that they should not use of the skills they learn where professional services are readily available.

4. Without objection.

Finally, the Good Samaritan law does not apply if the person receiving the assistance is capable of objecting and does in fact object, which brings us ftill circle to the tradition of the sanctity of the individual.

V. The Good Samaritan Law May Also Legalize Emergency Medical Procedures.

The purpose of the Good Samaritan laws, as explained above, is to immunize a volunteer gratuitously acting out of kindness and moral responsibility to help a person in need of emergency assistance from lawsuits against the person receiving the aid. The underlying goal of the law is to provide an incentive, or at least to remove a disincentive, to providing aid.

However, there is another useful potential for the law, or at least for the policy underlying the law. hi a case of Michigan, People of the State of Michigan v. Rogers, 641 N.W. 2d 595 (Mich. Ct. App. 2002), an appellate court ruled that the law in Michigan prohibiting a person from engaging in the "practice of medicine" without a license does not reach the "numerous gratuitous and humane acts of relief and kindness to the suffering common amongst mankind in all ages and places" in "the spirit of the 'Good Samaritan'..." .The Rogers case involved a person practicing alternative medicine, but its rational would seem to apply or at least strongly suggest that a person acting within the scope of the Good Samaritan law should not be held to be in violation of the law regarding licensing of health professionals. Ibis reading of the case is strengthened by the numerous references in the decision to the medical practices act of other states containing an express exception for those acting with the scope of the Good Samaritan law.

Copyright © 2010 Rufus Brown
May not be reproduced without permission of the author.

Brown & Burke Attorneys at Law
85 Exchange Street
Portland, ME 04141
207-775-0265
www.brownburkelaw.com

Outdoor Law: The Applicability of Good Samaritan Laws To Those Trained In Wilderness Medicine

Outdoor Ed — Mon, 04 Oct 2010 04:24:37 GMT

Revision 1 posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 10/4/2010 12:24:37 AM

by Rufus Brown Esq.

I. Introduction

Those who are trained in wilderness medicine should be aware of exposure to liability when they use the skills they have learned. This can be a bit more complicated than you might think.

II. Background Principles.

Before addressing the requirements for the protection of Good Samaritan laws, it is helpful to have some background.

1. There is generally no duty to render emergency assistance:

2. Exceptions:

A. For one who is responsible for the emergency:

B. For one who commences emergency assistance:

C. Other circumstances where there is a preexisting duty to provide emergency assistance:

3. The standard of care for a person providing emergency services:

III. The Good Samaritan Law Provides Qualified Immunity.

IV. The Requirements that Must be Met to Obtain the Benefits of the Act.

1. A person must act "voluntarily."

2. Without the expectation of monetary or other compensation.

3. In the event of an emergency.

4. Without objection.

V. The Good Samaritan Law May Also Legalize Emergency Medical Procedures.

Copyright © 2010 Rufus Brown
May not be reproduced without permission of the author.

Brown & Burke Attorneys at Law
85 Exchange Street
Portland, ME 04141
207-775-0265
www.brownburkelaw.com

Outdoor Law: Basic Risk Management Concepts for Outdoor Programs

Outdoor Ed — Mon, 04 Oct 2010 04:16:46 GMT

Current Revision posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 10/4/2010 12:16:46 AM

Outdoor Law: Basic Risk Management Concepts for Outdoor Programs

risk management, outdoor law, risk management

by Rufus E. Brown, Esq.

Outdoor programs tend to take safety issues seriously and perhaps for this reason usually have low loss experiences. Yet sound risk management requires more than an attitude. It comes from an understanding of the concepts and acting on that understanding.

I. Liability Issues

Liability can arise from marketing representations that lead to detrimental reliance or contract promises or from the manufacture and sale of defective products, but for most providers or sponsors of outdoor programs liability comes from general negligence or premises liability.

A. General Negligence

A claim for negligence requires proof that the defendant (1) owed a duty to the plaintiff, (2) breached that duty and, (3) as a result, (4) plaintiff suffered damages. The initial focus is on whether the sponsor of an outdoor program owed a duty.

A person or entity that is in the business of sponsoring outdoor activities owes a duty of care to its customers but is not always liable for injuries that occur in the course of a program. An important limitation on liability comes from the doctrine of “assumption of risk” or “inherent risk.” In most, if not all, states there is no duty to protect a person from a risk which is inherent in the sport or recreational activity or any liability for injuries resulting from such risks. A risk is “inherent” if it is integral to the activity itself. There is an inherent risk of falling when one engages in rock climbing, a risk of being discharged into turbulent water when whitewater rafting, a risk of being thrown from a horse at a dude ranch or from a bicycle because of a rut in the ground on a bicycle tour, etc. Another form of the inherent risk doctrine relates to injuries caused by co-participants. Co-participants are generally liable only if their conduct is intentional or recklessly outside of the range of conduct inherent in the activity. Again, a risk is inherent if the purpose and enjoyment of a sport or recreational activity would be essentially altered, diminished or frustrated if “inherent risks” were eliminated. Another way to look at the issue, although not accepted in all states, is to say that a person who voluntarily engages in a sport or recreational activity is presumed to understand the normal and obvious risks inherent in the activity and to have assumed responsibility for resulting injuries. Some states require that the plaintiff have subjective knowledge of “inherent risks” while others presume knowledge of such risks.

In many states, there is legislation limiting liability for injuries from certain kinds of activities, such as for skiing. For example, in Maine the Skiers’ and Tramway Passengers Responsibility Act, 32 M.R.S.A. §15217, et seq., requires skiers to assume the “risks inherent in the sport” as defined by the statute, including “weather conditions; existing and changing snow conditions, …surface or subsurface conditions, such as dirt, grass, bare spots,…and collisions with or falls resulting from … natural objects; lift towers, lights, signs, etc.

The doctrine of “inherent risks” does not mean that a provider of outdoor programs can ignore inherent risks. In fact it is always difficult to draw the line between where inherent risk ends and a duty of care begins. In reality the line may vary case by case based on how compelling the facts are. Certainly, a provider of outdoor programs will be held responsible for unreasonably enlarging inherent risks and will have a duty to anticipate and act reasonably to prevent harm from risks that can be addressed without taking away the essence of the activity. To use whitewater rafting as an example, there would be liability for failure to require trippers to wear life preservers or to overload a boat when injury results. And it is clearly prudent and basic to risk management to inform and caution participants of inherent risks before they are undertaken.

Subject to the foregoing, a sponsor or provider of an outdoor program, by the act of soliciting or encouraging participation, assumes a duty of exercising reasonable care to prevent foreseeable injuries to those who do participate. This is an objective standard, comparing the defendant’s conduct against the hypothetical, reasonably prudent person. At trial proof of the standard of care usually requires expert testimony to explain industry.

What specifically are these duties? It is hard to give an exhaustive list. A duty can be found in almost any aspect of the planning and carrying out of an outdoor activity if failure to exercise reasonable care results in foreseeable injury to participants. However, some of the recurring duties found in reported cases can be isolated; here are nine to consider..

(i) There is a duty to exercise reasonable care in the staffing of a program, including the hiring, training and supervision of staff. To comply with the duty of care in hiring questions must be asked and inquiries made. The duty would be breached if a trip leader who was hired for a youth program turned out to be a convicted child molester, to use an extreme example. A trip leader must be qualified to lead, with reasonable experience, skill and judgment, but does not have to be certified by the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS), or by Wilderness Medical Associates (WMA) to respond to wilderness injuries. Good risk managers certainly will seek to hire and train staff certified by national programs to the extent that such persons are available and that budgets allow. For example, if your program is leading a youth group on a wilderness expedition, where participants will be hours away from medical centers, it certainly makes good sense to have a leader certified at least as a WMA first responder or the equivalent from other wilderness medical training programs and, where this is not done, at least inform participants and their parents (if minors are involved) that there is no such trained personnel involved.

(ii) There can be a duty to provide reasonable care in screening participants and providing equipment reasonably necessary for the safe conduct of an outdoor activity. One hears the statement that medical screening should be avoided because knowledge of medical conditions of participants only increases the responsibility of the program staff. This is bad advice. If someone who is about to participate in an outdoor activity has a medical condition, including psychological disorders, that presents a greater risk of safety for that person ( or to other participants) because of the condition, such as a heart condition, asthma, significant allergies, a bipolar disorder, or the like, the program provider needs to know this in advance so as to seek, where appropriate, a doctor’s assurance that the participant can safely participate and has possession and knowledge of use of necessary medications, or to be sure that the program staff is prepared to deal with special needs, failing which the person may have to be refused participation (subject to American With Disabilities Act issues).

(iii) A sponsor or provider of an outdoor activity has a duty to develop an emergency response plan for medical emergencies occurring in the field. ² The author is not aware any requirement that CPR be administered if staff is not trained in the technique, or that an automatic external defibrillators be purchased and available for trained use on trips or that epi pens be carried by trip leaders. Lay persons have has a duty to respond to emergencies to the best of their ability with available resources; if a leader is professionally trained, say as an EMT, that person has a duty to use their professional EMT skills in responding to an emergency.

(iv) There is a duty to inform participants of the nature of the outdoor program offered and warn about the risks associated with participation. This allows participants to make an informed decision about then outdoor activity and assess their ability to do so safely. (v) There is a duty to explain safety rules for the program and to provide the necessary equipment to avoid or minimize injury. (vi) There is a duty to provide reasonably safe transportation if the program assumes the responsibility of transportation.

(viii) There is a duty to exercise reasonable care in supervising the outdoor activity. The extent of the duty depends on the circumstances. When dealing with minors the staff ratio would obviously be greater than with adults. (ix) There is a duty to exercise reasonable care in planning the itinerary and level of risk of a program activity. Fulfilling this duty exercising basic risk management requires planning by skilled personnel as well as pre-event communication with participants, especially if minors are involved.

If a participant in an outdoor program is injured, chances are that these duties will be examined to see if any contributed to the injury, and if so, liability may well be asserted. Risk management is the process of identifying these duties, documenting how they are being addressed and monitoring how they are being complied with.

B. Premises Liability

The owner or lessee of land or a person having control of premises through permission or a license has a responsibility for those who enter on the property that is defined by the status of the person. The highest duty is owed to persons who are invited on the premises as a social guest or as a business invitee, such as a paying customer. The person who occupies premises owes invitees a duty of providing reasonably safe premises for their use and to warn against foreseeable hazardous conditions. Many states do not distinguish between a duty to an invitee and a licensee who is permitted to come on premises for their own interest, convenience or gratification. However, most states provide that a lower duty is owed to a trespasser. A land occupier only owes a duty to refrain from wantonly or willfully injuring a trespasser.

There are special rules for minors. An occupier of premises owes a duty to children, who are invitees in their own right or when accompanying a parent who is an invitee, to make the premises safe from reasonably foreseeable misuse of the premises by children in light of their known or reasonably foreseeable propensities. There are special rules for trespassing children. The Restatement of the Law of Torts (Second) §339 states that a possessor of premises incurs liability to trespassing children for artificial conditions on the land if the place where the condition exists is reasonably known to be a place where children are likely to trespass, the condition is reasonably known to involve an unreasonable risk to children, the children do not appreciate the risk because of their youth, the utility of maintaining the condition and the burden of eliminating the risk is slight and the possessor fails to exercise reasonable care to eliminate the danger.

Note that there may be dual duties, one owed by the owner of property and the other by a person using the property under a lease or other permission from the owner. The landowner owes a duty to the person who occupies the property and the person who occupies the premises owes a duty to business patrons. Prudent landowners in these circumstances will require the tenant or licensee to indemnity the landowner for any liability arising out of the use of the property by program participants.

Many states have special legislation protecting landowners from liability when for property to be used for recreational purposes. Typically the owner of land used for such purposes are given immunity for claims that the premises were unsafe for entry and use or for failing to warn of hazardous conditions. Such immunity statutes would usually do immunize landowners from claims of willful or malicious failure to guard or warn and may not apply to persons who pay for the use of property.

C. Americans with Disability Act of 1990, 42 U.S.C. Sec. 12101, et seq. (the “ADA”).

Title III of the ADA prohibits discrimination against those with disabilities from full and equal enjoyment of any “place of public accommodation”, which includes a physical place of exercise or recreation. If applicable, the ADA requires programs to be conducted at a place and in a manner that is accessible to persons with disabilities. Reasonable accommodations must be made to facilitate persons with disabilities, which may require physical or programmatic modifications. Program modifications will not be required if they would fundamentally alter the nature of the program. In the case of PGA Tour v. Casey Martin, 532 U.S. 661 (2001), the Supreme Court held that the PGA Tour was required to modify its professional tournament rules to allow a disabled golfer to use a golf cart as an exception to the walking requirements applicable to the tournaments.

ADA responsibilities of an outdoor program are complicated and beyond the scope of this article. The key point to remember about the ADA is that a person with a disability should never be excluded from a program without an individual assessment of whether the person can be accommodated to allow equal participation. If, after an individual assessment, the sponsor of an outdoor program concludes that physical or programmatic barriers prevent participation by a person with disability, the program manager should consult with legal counsel to be sure that the ADA will not be violated by exclusion of the person from the program.

D. Who is Liable?

The person who actually engages in negligent conduct is personally liable for his or her negligence even if acting fully within the scope of employment. The organization that employs the person responsible for causing harm to another in the course of employment is also liable under the agency doctrine of respondeat superior so long as the wrongful conduct took place while the person was on the job, not off duty or on a “frolic or detour” from employment. Some providers may seek to limit their liability by hiring “independent contractors” to conduct the outdoor activity instead of employees so that the latter’s negligence does not flow up to provider. However, a person’s status as an independent contractor and not an employee may be challenged by an injured party if the provider exercises too much control over the contractor. Also, the provider could be liable for negligently contracting with a negligent contractor.

A person who supervises an employee who engages in negligent conduct can be liable if the conduct could have been prevented by proper supervision. Members of the board of directors can be liable if they adopt or permit policies for the operation of an outdoor program that could foreseeably lead to harm by a participant.

E. To Whom?

In addition to the injured party, a spouse of an injured party also has a claim for loss of consortium resulting from injury, meaning the loss of love, comfort, companionship and the physical relationship of a marriage. A similar claim can be made by a parent because of the injury to a child. These claims may not be extinguished by a release signed by the injured party. So, if as discussed below, a person signs a release of liability for injuries during an outdoor activity, that release will not be binding on the spouse or the parent of the injured party unless they also execute a release.

F. For What?

If there is negligence, the person or entity responsible must pay for medical treatment for physical injuries, psychological treatment for mental injuries, loss of wages, pain and suffering, loss of enjoyment of life, and loss of consortium for spouses and the equivalent for parents of injured persons. For intentional injuries or wantonly reckless conduct, punitive damages may be assessed.

II. Risk Management

Good risk management for outdoor programs can minimize exposure to these liability issues. A risk management program can be broken down into the following four categories:

A. Choosing the Organization

First, any outdoor program should be conducted through an organization. There are three models to examine.

One is a for-profit, limited liability entity, usually a corporation or a limited liability company. Operating through such an entity will protect the owners/organizers from personal exposure from the negligence of others. The person who acts or fails to act in a way that creates liability cannot escape liability for his or her personal conduct just because they are acting as an employee for an organization, but otherwise the liability is limited to the assets of the entity.

A second, preferable choice of an entity is a non-profit and more specifically a charitable organization that qualifies for tax exemption from taxation under Section 501(c) (3) of the Internal Revenue Code. In many states, including Maine, see 14

M.R.S.A. §158-A, case law and legislation create an immunity for a charitable organizations and for a directors, officers or volunteers of a charitable organization, including organizations that are listed although not exempt from taxation under Section 501(c)(3). The immunity is from claims of negligence occurring within the course and scope of the organization’s activities. In Maine, for the immunity to apply, the director, officer or volunteer may not be compensated and the exemption is removed to the extent of insurance coverage maintained by a charitable organization. In addition to state law, the federal Volunteer Protection Act of 1997, 42 U.S.C. § 14501, et seq., grants protection to volunteers of a nonprofit organization or governmental body, with some exceptions, regardless of what state law protects.

For youth outing clubs, the best organization to work from may be a school. If the club is recognized as a school activity and the organizers and trip leaders are teachers acting within the scope of their employment, then the club should be able to benefit from the limited liability (sovereign immunity for discretionary acts) of the school as a governmental entity. Parent volunteers would be able to get the protection of the Volunteer Protection Act of 1997.

The benefit of the non-profit or governmental entity is that the person whose conduct gives rise to an injury may benefit from the immunity if acting within the scope of their duties, unlike the person in a similar position in a for-profit entity.

B. Some Basics for the Organization

Second, good risk management requires a culture of safety and effective communication within the organization. This must come from the top and be actively promoted at all levels of the organization. Therefore communication of this culture must be effective, not just for employees but in how employees communicate with participants. Safety issues should be addressed in internal policies and procedures, in program materials, in mailings to participants or their parents and in conjunction with each activity. People don’t sue others who they like and believe are trying to be careful. If a participant in an outdoor program is aware from the outset that the organization sincerely cares about the safety and the well being of each participant and believes that an injury that took place occurred notwithstanding all efforts of the trip leaders to do their best, then chances are that person will not sue.

The organization should assign the task of risk management to a person within the organization whose responsibility should be to monitor risk management practices and periodically arrange for a professional risk management audit from someone outside the organization.

Another basic risk management tool is to maintain protocols for staff responses to injuries. Obviously the first priority must be to assist the injured party to obtain proper treatment. Beyond this, a record should be made of what happened, the conditions under which it happened and the persons who witnessed what happened. The record should be developed by interviewing those with knowledge as soon as possible, taking notes that are later organized into a report. This report should be forwarded to management for immediate transmittal to legal counsel for the organization. If it is made clear from the outset in training that these reports are being prepared at the request of counsel, they may be protected by the work product and/or attorney client privilege from disclosure to the injured party if suit is brought. If there is going to be litigation over the injury, it is critical for the organization’s attorney and insurance company have accurate and detailed records of all facts relating to the accident.

Trip leaders and others in charge of an outdoor program should be trained to refrain from making judgments about an accident, either in an accident report or in talking with an injured party or others. Those on the scene are often too close to the situation to make the right assessment. There may be an exaggerated sense of mea culpa that may not be justified under the circumstances, but if expressed may have a disastrous impact on subsequent litigation. Keep to the facts; let others make judgment later as necessary.

C. Releases or Participation Agreements

The third risk management tool is the release, sometimes also referred to as a “participation agreement” or an “indemnity agreement.” These are common and commonly misunderstood. Contrary to common lore, these agreements, while carefully screened by the courts for overreaching, are effective and are enforced in most states if properly drafted. There are those that find these agreements, especially those parts of the agreement that release an organization from liability for the negligence of its employees, as offensive. There is some justification for this view, depending on how the agreements are used. Most organizations will take responsibility for injuries that they cause but will use the agreements to protect themselves from time consuming and costly lawsuits that are not the result of negligence. Given the extent and cost of frivolous litigation, this form of protection is justifiable and prudent.

A good agreement will cover three subjects, in the following order:

First the agreement will describe in some detail the “inherent risks” of the activity about to be undertaken together with a statement that the participant voluntarily chooses to participate in these activities and voluntarily assumes the risk of injury from them. This transforms the doctrine of “inherent risk” described above into a contractual undertaking that most states will enforce. The key to the effectiveness of this phase of the agreement is a proper description of the inherent risks. This also serves the function of educating participants about the nature of the activity to be engaged in and can be used as a basis for a safety talk with participants at the outset of activity. Also, consider adding a representation that the signor is physically capable of participating in the activity and his or her medical care provider has approved participation.

Second the agreement releases in advance the sponsor or provider of the program and all of its officers, directors, employees, etc from any liability for damages arising out of the program activities, including negligence. In Maine and in other states, the word “negligence” must be used here so that the signor is properly informed about the scope of the release. Without specifically referring to negligence, the agreement will have little value. Courts will not enforce a release that goes further to release “gross negligence” or for intentional or wantonly reckless conduct because to do so would contravene public policy.

Third, and what makes these agreements so effective, is an agreement of the participant or other signor to indemnity and hold harmless the provider of the outdoor activity in the event of a suit for damages contrary to the person’s undertaking in the agreement, or for a suit brought on behalf of a spouse or child of the person signing the agreement. If covered in the indemnity clause, the agreement can require the person who signs the agreement to pay for a court judgment as well as the attorneys fees incurred in defense of a suit brought contrary to the agreement. These kinds of indemnities have been enforced , in Maine and in other States, when the injured party brings suit contrary to his agreement not to and certainly should give a person who has signed such an agreement pause before suing a provider of outdoor activities protected by the agreement. Enforcement of an indemnity against a parent for a minor’s claim of liability is much more problematic in terms of public policy.

If the participant is a minor, then the minor should sign the agreement and the minor’s parents should also sign, ideally both of them. Some states do not enforce releases for minors; some states do not enforce them unless both parents sign in addition to the minor. Obviously, the more signatures the better.

It may be prudent for a provider to have two sets of such agreements, one for membership in the organization, such as an outing club, and another for a specific event. The benefit of a two tier system is that the more general release can be relied upon as a fall back if somehow the more specific release is not signed or there is some other problem with it. The benefit of the event release is that it can be more specifically tailored to the activity being undertaken and therefore more effective for purposes of assuming inherent risks. If the two tier system is used, care should be taken that an attorney compares them to be sure they are consistent.

A word on timing. It is a poor business practice, which could lead to invalidation of a release, if the subject is brought up for the first time at the beginning of the actual outdoor event, more so to the extent of the time and expense of showing up for the program. Last minute presentation of releases can put unfair pressure on the person to sign. These releases, or at a minimum disclosure that there will be a requirement for signing one, should be known in advance of the day of the activity so that the person making a decision about participating will be able to factor in the release.

Finally, an organization should have the agreement reviewed by an attorney and that attorney will want to review the organization’s state law. If the organization’s state law allows enforcement of these kinds of agreements, the attorney will want to insert a “choice of law” provision that identifies that state law as applying for purpose of reviewing and enforcing the agreement regardless of the site of the injury or the home state of the participant.

D. Insurance

The fourth and most important risk management tool is insurance. A good insurance policy makes up for a lot of sins in the risk management business.

The basic policy to obtain is a General Commercial Liability (“GCL”) policy covering, inter alia, “bodily injuries” resulting from “occurrences.” This is not as easy as it sounds because many, if not most, insurance companies cover typical brick and mortar operations and do not take the time or have the interest or incentive to tailor a policy for the specific needs of an outdoor program. The process is complicated by the structure of the insurance industry, where the insured is usually limited to discussions with a broker, who then communicates with a wholesaler of insurance, who then communicates with the insurance company’s underwriters. The opportunities for miscommunications and misunderstandings are legion in this process.

When a GCL policy is obtained, read it, or have someone with patience and the skill to do so review what is usually arcane and lengthy policy language. Be sure it covers what the program does. Some insurance companies will allow an insured to define what the covered organization does. Make sure premises liability is not limited to the physical location of the organization’s headquarters. The smaller or more unique the program the more difficulty there will be finding an affordable policy that adequately covers the risks involved. Unfortunately, as a result, no insurance may be available or it may be too expensive to buy.

Guides, trip leaders, educators and others working in the outdoor industry and the entities that employ them should have professional liability (sometimes referred to as “errors and omissions”) coverage. Typically, GCL policies will exclude coverage for bodily injury resulting from professional negligence. Premiums for these policies can be expensive to the extent that bodily injury is covered.

Other insurance products that should be considered are, obviously, automobile insurance, insurance for loss of a structure and personal property, insurance that will cover claims for sexual molestation (an increasingly common risk in outdoor programs), employment practices coverage, officers and directors liability insurance, and workers compensation insurance. For a volunteer and others involved in a outdoor program, the availability of an umbrella policy should be explored. Umbrella coverage, usually up to $1 million can be acquired as an extension to a basic homeowners or auto policy for an additional premium that is often modest. Yet the coverage is extremely broad, making it one of the least known great bargains in the filed of insurance.

The key is to find a good agent who is willing to take the time to understand your business, can explain your product needs, and find an underwriter to issue a policy meeting those needs.

Finally, some organizations require participants to show proof of their health insurance as a condition to participation in an outdoor program. The obvious benefit of this requirement is that it may reduce the incentive of injured person from suing the organization when an accident occurs.

III. Conclusion

Accidents will happen and injured parties will sue and no amount of risk management will prevent either from occurring. However, organizations that see the value of risk management and actively integrate it into their operations will be safer and better at what they do.

¹ This article describes general legal concepts. The law in a particular state may vary from what is described here. The author serves as counsel for Wilderness Medical Associates, but all views are his only.

Copyright © 2010 Rufus Brown
May not be reproduced without permission of the author.

Brown & Burke Attorneys at Law
85 Exchange Street
Portland, ME 04141
207-775-0265
www.brownburkelaw.com

Outdoor Law: Basic Risk Management Concepts for Outdoor Programs

Outdoor Ed — Mon, 23 Aug 2010 02:52:43 GMT

Revision 2 posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 8/22/2010 10:52:43 PM

Outdoor Law: Basic Risk Management Concepts for Outdoor Programs

risk management, outdoor law

by Rufus E. Brown, Esq.

I. Liability Issues

A. General Negligence

B. Premises Liability

C. Americans with Disability Act of 1990, 42 U.S.C. Sec. 12101, et seq. (the “ADA”).

D. Who is Liable?

E. To Whom?

F. For What?

II. Risk Management

Good risk management for outdoor programs can minimize exposure to these liability issues. A risk management program can be broken down into the following four categories:

A. Choosing the Organization

First, any outdoor program should be conducted through an organization. There are three models to examine.

B. Some Basics for the Organization

C. Releases or Participation Agreements

A good agreement will cover three subjects, in the following order:

D. Insurance

The fourth and most important risk management tool is insurance. A good insurance policy makes up for a lot of sins in the risk management business.

The key is to find a good agent who is willing to take the time to understand your business, can explain your product needs, and find an underwriter to issue a policy meeting those needs.

III. Conclusion

Copyright © 2010 Rufus Brown

Brown & Burke Attorneys at Law
85 Exchange Street
Portland, ME 04141
207-775-0265
www.brownburkelaw.com

Outdoor Law: Basic Risk Management Concepts for Outdoor Programs

Outdoor Ed — Mon, 23 Aug 2010 02:50:50 GMT

Revision 1 posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 8/22/2010 10:50:50 PM

by Rufus E. Brown, Esq.

I. Liability Issues

A. General Negligence

B. Premises Liability

C. Americans with Disability Act of 1990, 42 U.S.C. Sec. 12101, et seq. (the “ADA”).

D. Who is Liable?

E. To Whom?

F. For What?

II. Risk Management

Good risk management for outdoor programs can minimize exposure to these liability issues. A risk management program can be broken down into the following four categories:

A. Choosing the Organization

First, any outdoor program should be conducted through an organization. There are three models to examine.

B. Some Basics for the Organization

C. Releases or Participation Agreements

A good agreement will cover three subjects, in the following order:

D. Insurance

The fourth and most important risk management tool is insurance. A good insurance policy makes up for a lot of sins in the risk management business.

The key is to find a good agent who is willing to take the time to understand your business, can explain your product needs, and find an underwriter to issue a policy meeting those needs.

III. Conclusion

This article is intended as information only and is not intended as legal advice. Recreation and adventure providers should work with experienced legal counsel, including counsel licensed in their jurisdiction, to advise them on how developing case law or legal issues may impact matters specific to their operation.

Copyright © 2010 Rufus Brown

Brown & Burke Attorneys at Law
85 Exchange Street
Portland, ME 04141
207-775-0265
www.brownburkelaw.com

An 'Ecological' approach to Internal Risk Management Audits

Outdoor Ed — Mon, 19 Apr 2010 02:34:46 GMT

Current Revision posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 4/18/2010 10:34:46 PM

An 'Ecological' approach to Internal Risk Management Audits: How the approach can influence the outcome

audit, risk management, audit

An 'Ecological' approach to Internal Risk Management Audits: How the approach can influence the outcome

by Clare Dallat and Preston Cline

This article by Clare Dallat of the Outdoor Education Group and Preston Cline of the Wharton Center for Leadership and Change Management at the University of Pennsylvania explores how the actual approach taken before, during and after the audit, may go a long way in determining the outcome, and the effectiveness of the report to your staff, clients and organization. It also offers concrete suggestions as to how to structure audits to ensure consistency each time one is conducted.

How do you know, for a fact, that you are providing the services your marketing states you are providing? Internal Risk Management audits are an effective evaluation tool for determining current risk management practices. The recommendations that you enact following a review can provide a clear recordof the measures that your program has taken to improve its risk management practices, in addition to maintaining the integrity of the mission of the organization.

This paper will argue that the actual approach taken before, during and after the audit, may go a long way in determining the outcome, and the effectiveness of the report to your staff, clients and organization. It will also offer some suggestions as to how to structure audits to ensure consistency each time one is conducted.

Start with your language

The very term ‘audit’ can be enough to initiate feelings of being ‘watched’ or ‘judged’ into the minds of the staff involved. Whether the review takes the form of a ‘surprise visit’ or a planned event, the feeling that a timed ‘test’ which needs to be passed after which, things can then get back to ‘normal,’ is not uncommon.

It seems then, paradoxical that the word ‘audit’ itself is defined as “To evaluate or improve safety, efficiency or the like” (Webster’s New Universal Unabridged Dictionary, 1996, Random House). We will offer several suggestions as to how to address this disconnect, and have internal audits viewed by all your stakeholders as an integrated tool in your organization’s overall risk management practices.

Phase One: Identify the Metric

To identify the metric, means to find out what you will be measuring your

*By ecological we simply mean to say: “Being able to see all of the variables within a risk management system and their interactions.”

observations against. Remember to be guided by the primary purpose of an internal audit: “Does your organization do in the field, what it says it does in its documentation?” By having this as your primary question, you have an active standard to measure against.

This standard should be taken from all documentation relating to your program whether it is standard operating procedures, marketing material, website information or program specific brochures. Starting with your mission, these materials should all be aligned so the message delivered in each is consistent and your staff are clear on their principle programmatic goals. Put another way, would a participant’s parent reasonably understand why you are making a particular decision regarding the welfare of their child?

“Collaborative” versus the “Adversarial” or “Punitive” Approach

A key consideration when performing internal audits is to be very clear about what exactly you are auditing. Often the resistance that managers receive from field staff have to do with the fear of the unknown. They feel as though they are taking a test, and no one has told them what to study for, or how they are going to be graded. Do not underestimate the importance of remaining clear and objective throughout the auditing process; ambiguity only increases resistance.

Maintaining Perspective

For many reasons, as managers we can often enter audits with preconceived notions of particular aspects of the program, or the performance of certain staff. Preconceived ideas about what you may find can blind your objectivity, and can result in missing key underlying issues.

When people feel that they are being judged, or tested on their performance in relation to how ‘safe’ they are, the audit and its purpose immediately becomes about them- are they ‘safe?’ Are they doing the ‘right’ things?

A more objective approached is called for if you, as Program Director are to gain maximum information from an internal audit, while also maintaining the support of the staff or volunteers involved in the audit.

Phase Two: The Ecological Approach

This approach takes the person out of the audit and looks at the larger systems of the program’s operations (specific instances where you may witness immediate safety concerns will be discussed further in this article). To do this you first need to identify the larger programmatic variables, such as client, staff, equipment, environment etc. (Adventure Incorporated developed a tool called “Adventure Management Systems®” specifically designed for this purpose.) Once you have identified the variables specific to your program, you need to determine how those variables interact. It is the integrity of these variables and their interactions that will ultimately determine the ecological health of your organization. As you will quickly realize, it is often impossible to look at the entire system at once, therefore you will need to determine the areas that you will focus on, and what questions you will need to answer.

What are the over all questions?

This approach has the same underlying objective—i.e. are you doing what you say you are doing? However, it involves looking much deeper than merely ‘checking the boxes.’ Are the systems that you have in place as an organization, supporting your staff and clients achieve the educational outcomes you are aiming for? This approach actively takes the ‘blame’ or singular responsibility away from the actual staff members being audited.

By instilling a culture in your organization that accepts audits as an essential part of an overall risk management strategy, which are conducted to review the overall systems in place, staff will be much more likely to welcome them and not be overly intimidated by them. This in turn will enable you, as the auditor, to gain more valuable information from them.

Phase Three – Interviewing the staff

By adopting an ecological approach, the question of whether or not the staff member had the required items in their first aid kit, for example, moves away from a simple “Yes” or “No” answer (i.e. it’s all about them), to an “If not, why not?” question (i.e. it’s about the systems in place). In other words, did we have the supplies available? Did staff have time needed to restock their first aid kits? Are the kits being used so often it is hard to restock them? Do we have the right type and size first aid kits for the needs of the program? By approaching audits this way, we are better placed to identify the more complex issues that may get missed by solely utilizing an approach that is based on the “Yes or No” answers provided by the person(s) being audited.

Furthermore, by starting with the assumption that your staff are doing the best they can, you first identify or eliminate program variables as contributors to error. This then allows you to focus on the “human factors.” In other words, if you have identified a staff member as underperforming, you have already ruled out all the other excuses, all that is left then, is their actions. The conversation is less about emotion and more about fact.

Timing is everything – who and when....?

Internal audits should be conducted by staff knowledgeable in the policies and procedures of the organization. The person or persons conducting the audit should have a clear understanding of the type of program and the stakeholders involved. For these reasons, program managers/directors or staff responsible for risk management generally conduct internal audits.

Consider the timing of your on-site visit—is it likely to have a negative impact on the educational objectives of the program? Is it taking the focus of the instructor away from the group? Is your presence distracting the students?

Are they expecting you? Better acceptance is achieved when staff are informed of the upcoming audit immediately prior to the program. Staff are more likely to teach in their natural manner with the element of surprise missing. If you are holding on to the belief that a ‘surprise visit’ might ‘catch’ the staff doing something wrong, you may want examine your hiring practices. If, at some level, you cannot trust your staff, catching them in the wrong, is not the solution.

The auditor needs to have credibility in the eyes of the staff. This is achieved by only questioning the systems in place, not making rash judgments about the correctness of any one person’s actions and always maintaining a respectful attitude.

Accept that you will observe and uncover errors.

When we talk about complex systems, such as organizations involving more than one person, we are going to encounter errors. THIS CANNOT BE AVOIDED. More importantly, however, is the fact that identifying errors actually enables you to identify weaknesses in the system and therefore find ways to make the program even stronger. Your goals for a review should be consistent with this idea.

The Documentation Stage

This stage involves reviewing the documentation surrounding the specific program being audited. Is this documentation consistent with what you say it will be in your program literature? This stage should ideally be conducted prior to the physical on-site part of the audit.

The Interviews

This stage of the review involves speaking with staff members and (if appropriate) participants. Again, the questioning here should serve the purpose of evaluating the level of consistency between what is documented and what is occurring in the field.

It is important to try and keep this process as ‘natural’ as possible—speak with the staff member and let them know why you’re there—would they like to introduce you to the group? By keeping this process as non-invasive and natural as possible, you are better serving your clients and the outcome of the review.

Ethical Issues (what if you witness scary stuff?)

As a staff member, you have an obligation to manage risk to the best of your ability. Due to the human element, mistakes will happen and these can sometimes occur while you are conducting a review. Your first priority is attempting to deal with the immediate risk to your stakeholders. Depending on the situation, this may mean you stepping in and taking charge, or it may mean taking the staff member aside and empowering them to handle the situation. The less intrusive way is obviously favorable.

Phase Four – Writing the Report

This stage of the review involves documenting what you observed in an objective fashion. Having a template that matches up documentation with the questions you asked in the review process will help ensure this. Where were the inconsistencies between documentation and practice? It is essential that the report be written in a way that is easy to read, clearly outlines what was observed and can be made sense of five years from now.

The report should also include a “Recommendations” section—simply put this means, based on your observations during the review and the inconsistencies observed, what do you recommend being done to rectify the issues? Depending on level of risk and exposure to your organization, these should be prioritized in order of importance. It is critical to understand that these recommendations are not based solely on your opinions, but rather need to be backed up with industry standards, best practices and laws or regulations.

Delivering the Report

Depending on your organization and its structure, your report may go to your Risk Management Committee, your supervisor or the Executive Committee. It is important to identify who will view the report and who has responsibility for enacting the recommendations. This will ensure that the process is transparent and that those people identified to enact recommendations are accountable.

External Audits – Where do they fit in...?

Effective risk management should always include auditing of the program by an external reviewer. This allows the organization an opportunity to objectively affirm the successful aspects of their program as well as identifying and questioning components that can be improved. (for more information on professional risk managers see www.outdoor.com)

Conclusion

Having a well-documented, consistent and systematic approach to regular internal audits can assist your organization in managing operational risk. By ensuring that your primary objective in these audits is theevaluation of the actual systems that your organization has in place to support all stakeholders, to achieve your mission, you will be better placed to obtain not just more valuable information from them, but also the willingness of your staff to be a participant and agent for growth, as opposed to a potential blocker due to fear of subjective judgment on their ability to be “safe.”

About the Authors

Clare Dallat is the Head of Risk Management at the Outdoor Education Group, located in southeastern Australia. Her role involves managing operational risk for this large non-profit outdoor education program that provides 3-33 day programs for school students, as part of their integrated school curriculum. Clare has worked in the field of Outdoor/Adventure Education for the past 10 years, spanning roles from adventure trip leader to program director in the eastern United States and Australia. She has led and administered programs for 7 to 84 year old clients. Clare gained a BA (Hons) from the University of Wales, Lampeter, and will shortly commence an MSc in Risk, Crisis and Disaster Management from the University of Leicester, UK.

The Outdoor Education Group(OEG) is an non-profit Outdoor Education provider, serving the independent schools sector in southeastern Australia. OEG is the largest outdoor education provider in Australia, currently working with over 80 schools and 22,000 students a year. OEG works in partnership with each of their client schools to identify and deliver the pre-determined desired educational outcomes, which ultimately focus on the sense of self; others and the natural world, and the interaction between these elements.

The Outdoor Education Group, National Base
www.oeg.net.au

Preston B. Cline Initially trained as wilderness instructor Preston began his career in the late 1980’s leading 60-day wilderness trips with adjudicated youth. Prior to founding Adventure Incorporated he worked as a Risk Manager in both Adventure Education Programs and Summer Camps. In 1999, Preston founded Adventure Incorporated, and as of 2004, had participated in over 60 risk management reviews among a diverse set of clients that ranged from Australia to Alaska. He has a B.S. from Rutgers University, with a minor in Professional Youth Work, as well as a M. Ed from the Harvard University Graduate School of Education, where he completed formal research in the etymology and evolution of risk. Preston founded Adventure Incorporated, a Risk Management Training & Consulting firm focused on the field of Adventure Education. Preston is currently the Associate Director of the Graduate Leadership Ventures Program at the Wharton Center for Leadership and Change Management at the University of Pennsylvania. Preston continues to lecture and publish frequently on the subject of Risk and Risk Management.

Wharton Center for Leadership and Change Management

An 'Ecological' approach to Internal Risk Management Audits: How the approach can influence the outcome

Outdoor Ed — Mon, 19 Apr 2010 02:32:19 GMT

Revision 1 posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 4/18/2010 10:32:19 PM

by Clare Dallat and Preston Cline

Start with your language

Phase One: Identify the Metric

To identify the metric, means to find out what you will be measuring your

*By ecological we simply mean to say: “Being able to see all of the variables within a risk management system and their interactions.”

“Collaborative” versus the “Adversarial” or “Punitive” Approach

Maintaining Perspective

Phase Two: The Ecological Approach

What are the over all questions?

Phase Three – Interviewing the staff

Timing is everything – who and when....?

Accept that you will observe and uncover errors.

The Documentation Stage

The Interviews

Ethical Issues (what if you witness scary stuff?)

Phase Four – Writing the Report

Delivering the Report

External Audits – Where do they fit in...?

Conclusion

About the Authors

The Outdoor Education Group, National Base
www.oeg.net.au

Wharton Center for Leadership and Change Management

Staying in the Field and Out of the Courthouse

Outdoor Ed — Mon, 12 Apr 2010 13:57:53 GMT

Current Revision posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 4/12/2010 9:57:53 AM

Staying in the Field and Out of the Courthouse

risk managementlegal, Reb Gregg, legalrisk management

by Charles "Reb" Gregg

The primary purpose of a risk management plan is not the avoidance of legal liability. Rather, it is the maintenance of a quality program; that is, one which deals reasonably and fairly with its clients or students and their families. A program that delivers what it says it will deliver, and does so in the context of reasonable management of the risks, is not assured of "safety" or freedom from lawsuits. But generally, if such a level of performance is achieved, legal liability issues are minimized and take care of themselves.

Good programs develop good risk management plans; and a good risk management plan will employ the principles of AMI - Analyze, Manage and Inform. This "AMI rule" is simple, important and easy to remember.

Analyze
The beginning point in the formulation of your plan is an analysis of what you are doing and why. Alignment of your choice of activities with the goals that you purport to serve is absolutely essential. Your mission or goal statement should be the North Star of your program and if your activities, structure, and schedule do not serve that mission, it will lead to confusion, and worse, among your staff and clientele. Importantly if these "surplus" activities include risks - and they certainly will - you are placing your staff and clients in jeopardy unnecessarily.

Another essential alignment is that between your program's desired and expected outcomes and the desired and expected outcomes of the student and his or her parents. Confusion in this regard can lead to at least disappointment and frustration and possibly a claim that the program did not perform as it led the family to believe it would. Arguments in this regard might include failure to provide certain activities or learning opportunities and failure to warn of the consequences of certain behaviors.

In this era of heightened competition in the outdoor recreation industry, programs are striving to be more interesting, more exiting, and more innovative than their competitors. Programs are expanding their activities to include climbing walls and other challenge course elements, extended wilderness experiences, and trips into urban settings and public venues - even foreign countries. These innovations carry new risks previously unanticipated. New activities often require the services of third party vendors - public and private. This increasingly popular method of satisfying the variety of experiences sought by the public carries certain risks. You are expected to use care in your selection of such vendors and may be responsible for their acts or omissions which cause harm to a student.

The careful administrator will be sure that innovations serve the mission of the program. That mission, of course, will vary with the uses and functions offered. If a program allows its facilities to be rented for a corporate conference, recreation event, or outdoor education program for example, the new risks and obligations must be understood, the goal of the "program" modified, at least for that function, and the expectations regarding responsibilities and outcomes must be shared with all concerned.

The most important aspect of this analysis "leg" of the AMI rule is to limit activities and risks to those which are manageable and serve the mission of the program and the expectations of the program and the people it serves. A vigorous analysis conducted by a responsible program administrator will eliminate activities and their risks which do not advance the purposes of the program, and will then turn to the business of managing the risks of those activities which are essential. Determine how well you do what you do (stop doing what you don't do well, or hire more qualified staff); with whom you are doing it (an issue of qualified and trained staff and an informed and qualified clientele); and when and where you do it (understanding the environment and conditions in which your various activities will take place).

Manage
The Analysis described above should leave your program with only those activities which are consistent with your mission and only those risks which can be reasonably managed.

Each activity, and your program as a whole, has certain inherent risks - those which simply come with the territory. Without such risks, the activities would be very different, or eliminated altogether. The risk of falling off a horse or out of a canoe, or stumbling on a trail are, generally, inherent risks of these respective activities. If you eliminate the risk, you will not get on a horse, you will not get in a canoe (at least not on the water) and you will not venture off a concrete or asphalt path. Your clients do not expect, and your mission statement does not contemplate-cannot tolerate-the inactivity that would result if you were to attempt to eliminate the inherent risks of your program.

In addition to inherent risks, of course, other risks may present themselves and may be the result of careless acts or omissions on the part of staff or participants (negligence), of circumstances of the environment or facilities which could and should have been known or foreseen but were not, and, always, of that unforeseen event - a bolt out of the blue - which can cause injuries. Generally a program has no legal duty to protect a participant from the inherent risks of an activity. But a responsible program watches those risks carefully, attempts to reduce the prospects of harm arising from those risks, and certainly avoids enlarging those risks through acts or omissions of its administrative and field staffs.

Management responsibilities arise in a number of areas. These would certainly include the following:

adequate disclosure to and collection of information from participants (see below);
appropriate and well functioning equipment;
emergency protocols, practices and policies which are clearly understood and appropriate to the tasks;
an understanding of environmental conditions, including grounds and structures involved in the activities;
maintenance of records of important aspects of the operation, including near misses and serious incidents, medical records of the campers, and personnel matters;
a fair and well functioning administration which maintains morale at a high level and provides reasonable logistical support;
screening and supervision of participants and staff; and
selection, training, and policies regarding termination of staff.

Inform
The third leg of our AMI approach to risk management calls for the disclosure of aspects of the activities and other experiences likely to be encountered, for the benefit of participants and parents. Disclosure is particularly important regarding those activities with which participants and parents may not be familiar, and which might represent some departure from traditional outdoor programming - challenge course activities; remote backcountry trips; means of transportation, including to urban areas; reliability of various means of communication, including to remote situations; the use of third party providers and vendors, certain emergency medical help issues; and expectations regarding behavior and the consequences of failing to meet those expectations.

A participant in your program deserves to know what to expect. Perhaps more significantly, a person or family affected by an event or condition cannot be assumed to have consented to the risks of participation in that situation if they don't know of it beforehand. (It's very difficult to convince a jury that an eleven year old child could have "just said no" to a jump off a thirty foot overhang into a natural pool.) Failure to disclose the prospect of a remote field trip, or the absence of radios, for example, may allow a family to make a claim that would not otherwise be available to it.

Another aspect of "inform," of course, is to collect information from the camper so that you can determine the camper's suitability for the activities. An alternative might be to provide enough information to the camper and his or her physician regarding the requirements of the activities so that the camper and a medical professional can decide the issue of suitability.

This matter of informing, or disclosure, is as important as the other two parts of AMI. The purpose is to reduce surprises and disappointments so that a participant or parents cannot say of an activity which may have produced an injury: "I had no idea that. . . .". Or "Had we known about that we certainly would never have. . ."

So there you have it: AMI, ANALYZE what you are doing and why, with whom, where and with what capability. Eliminate risky activities that don't serve your announced goals and objectives. MANAGE well the activities, and their risks, which your analysis determines should be a part of your program. Finally, INFORM your participants and their parents of what they can expect.

Unfortunate things can happen to the best programs. What we do involves risk; but the rewards are tangible and give us confidence that, even in the face of the risks, the experience is a valuable one for participants. Following the AMI rule is no guarantee of freedom from accidents or liability, but it puts you well down the road to a quality program whose risks are reasonably managed.

For more information see Reb's Web site - http://www.rebgregg.com

Staying in the Field and Out of the Courthouse

Outdoor Ed — Mon, 12 Apr 2010 13:48:28 GMT

Revision 2 posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 4/12/2010 9:48:28 AM

taying Staying in the Field and Out of the Courthouse

risk management, Reb Gregg, legal

Management responsibilities arise in a number of areas. These would certainly include the following:

adequate disclosure to and collection of information from participants (see below);
appropriate and well functioning equipment;
emergency protocols, practices and policies which are clearly understood and appropriate to the tasks;
an understanding of environmental conditions, including grounds and structures involved in the activities;
maintenance of records of important aspects of the operation, including near misses and serious incidents, medical records of the campers, and personnel matters;
a fair and well functioning administration which maintains morale at a high level and provides reasonable logistical support;
screening and supervision of participants and staff; and
selection, training, and policies regarding termination of staff.

For more information see Reb's Web site - http://www.rebgregg.com

taying in the Field and Out of the Courthouse

Outdoor Ed — Mon, 12 Apr 2010 13:47:53 GMT

Revision 1 posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 4/12/2010 9:47:53 AM

Management responsibilities arise in a number of areas. These would certainly include the following:

adequate disclosure to and collection of information from participants (see below);
appropriate and well functioning equipment;
emergency protocols, practices and policies which are clearly understood and appropriate to the tasks;
an understanding of environmental conditions, including grounds and structures involved in the activities;
maintenance of records of important aspects of the operation, including near misses and serious incidents, medical records of the campers, and personnel matters;
a fair and well functioning administration which maintains morale at a high level and provides reasonable logistical support;
screening and supervision of participants and staff; and
selection, training, and policies regarding termination of staff.

For more information see Reb's Web site - http://www.rebgregg.com

International Risk Management

Outdoor Ed — Sun, 14 Feb 2010 17:56:38 GMT

Current Revision posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 2/14/2010 12:56:38 PM

International Risk Management

risk managementBill Frederick, International, Bill Frederickrisk management

by Bill Frederick
School for Field Studies

I remember sitting around a hotel in Mexico City listening to a few students telling their story of being mugged. I was a little distracted at the time thinking about the bus we’d just hired with bald tires, no working emergency exits and a driver who tested his spiritual strength by passing other vehicles on blind curves. But we didn’t want to drive the rental vans again, white knuckled and hoping for a clue as to how the traffic worked. The all day carries of altitude sick students off Ixtaccihuatl were still in our future. This component of the semester had been preceded by a couple of months in the US southeast hiking, multi pitch rock climbing, whitewater paddling and caving, which had fooled us into thinking we were competent. Mundane logistics in Mexico was proving much more daunting than we’d anticipated.

What makes risk management in developing countries interesting is that the objective hazards are greater, the available resources for coping with incidents are fewer and, unless you are a country national or have had extensive experience in the region, it is unfamiliar.

Greater Hazards

A number of factors contribute to the greater hazards of middle and low income countries including poverty, geography (exposure to natural disasters; flora/fauna/disease issues), underdeveloped infrastructure, political instability, underdeveloped regulatory systems, irregular or non existent enforcement of regulations, underdeveloped insurance industry and torte law, etc. A few points:

85 % of the people exposed to earthquakes, tropical cyclones, floods and droughts live in mid to low income countries.
People in developing countries are 4 times more likely to die from natural disaster events than those in high income countries.
97% of all drowning deaths occur in low and middle income countries. Drowning mortality rates for low and middle income countries (LMIC) per 100,000 population is 7.4. For high income countries (HIC) it is 2.02.
More than 95% of fatal fire related burns occur in low and middle income countries. 4.8/100,000 for LMICs and 1.2/100,000 for HICs.
While 75% of all fatal falls occur in low and middle income countries, the #s per 100,000 are generally higher in high income countries. Lest you think that this may be due to extreme sports, the highest demographic for fatal falls is in the 70 – 79 age range and is indicative of the longer life spans in high income countries.
If you access www.citybriefs.com (requires password) which rates cities for their security and the likelihood of being a victim of violence ( Luxembourg and Reykjavik get a 1; Bogota rates a 6 and Baghdad a 7), you’ll note that no US, Australian, Japanese or European city gets a rating higher than a 4. All the 5, 6 and 7s are awarded to cities in developing countries.
95% of all homicides occur in low and middle income countries. That is 12.8/100,000 in LMICs and 3.0/100,000 for HICs.
In 2002 90% of all road traffic deaths occurred in low and middle income countries. It is highly variable by region however as some economies improve rapidly people take to the roads far ahead of the rate of road development and regulatory systems making for sudden jumps in the carnage level.
There is a higher risk of disease in lower income countries. The lack of funding for water purification and food regulation, sanitation, education, public health initiatives, i.e., childhood immunizations, vector eradication, etc., all contributes to higher disease risks. And developing countries in the tropics also simply have more diseases. If you look at the WHO Disease Maps ( www.who.int/ith/diseasemaps_index.html), you will see the notably higher incidence of diseases in lower income countries.

Fewer Resources

Fewer resources and underdeveloped infrastructure may contribute to the cause of an incident, but they define the environment for coping with an incident. A crisis is when many travelers and program managers really learn about their host country’s communication, transportation and medical infrastructure.

Communications

Emergency communications are improving exponentially in most developing countries with the mushrooming of cell phone towers that are providing much better service than the obsolete (when they were installed) land lines systems. It is almost to the point that satellite phones are only needed in the most remote areas. Routine communications out of developing countries that may play a role in avoiding incidents is also easier and more reliable with the internet, world cell phones, text messaging, etc.

Road Transportation Infrastructure

In middle and low income countries, rapid motorization has quickly outstripped the development of roads, vehicle safety standards, policies, regulations and enforcement. Instead of a differentiated system of roads with limits for usage and appropriate regulations, there may only be 2 kinds of roads: paved and unpaved. When there is traffic of widely varying masses moving at widely varying velocities, the pedestrians, bicycles, scooters and animal drawn carts tend not to fare well against the fast moving cars, lorries and buses. The carnage is especially great when the vehicles are old; don’t have anti lock brakes, collapsible front ends, reinforced passenger compartments, airbags, seatbelts, or tread on the tires. And inconsistent or nonexistent enforcement of regulations means that speeding and driving while intoxicated play an even bigger role than in developed nations. Also you may want to avoid driving at night when accident rates spike up and human predators, if they are a concern, are usually more active. When you are more prey than predator, it behooves you to observe how prey manages safety and to stay with the herd at night.

Medical Infrastructure

In most developing countries there is no tradition of citizen first aid training and no EMS outside of big cities. There are fewer doctors per capita and most lack specialized training in handling trauma cases. Low and middle income countries also lack qualified surgeons. An 80’s survey found that the US had 100 times the surgeons per capita as Africa. Since then many developing countries have created competent homegrown medical training programs but now contend with “medical migration” where trained professionals are recruited to the UK and Australia, etc. to help keep down the costs of their national healthcare systems. In the low income countries where my organization (The School for Field Studies) operates, there is a local clinic which is headed up by a medical officer with a couple of years training. They serve the local populace well for minor injuries, parasites, and minor infections with the dozen or so antibiotics and the few other drugs they have. They are very helpful to us if someone has diarrhea or a UTI. The regional hospital might be a short plane ride away or an hour’s drive. They have one or more General Practitioners, a lot more drugs, a lab (albeit one prone to misdiagnosis with underpowered microscopes and contaminated dyes), and you could get an X-ray there. They could take out your appendix, but you’d want to wait if you could. You might be a little concerned about the blood supply and sterilization procedures. The international standard hospital in a large city might be a 4 hour ride away or a longer plane ride. But they have surgeons and other specialists; they will have all the drugs on the World Health Organization’s list of essential medicines and then some; they will have reliable laboratories and diagnostic technologies. They do a great job taking out appendixes.

How to Manager Risk Internationally

So, greater hazards, fewer resources, sketchier information; how can you manage risk? It depends on what you want to do. If you are only responsible for yourself and are out for adventure, or looking to submit to another culture by way of exorcising your bad high income country karma, just go (keep in mind the definition of adventure being 95% hard work/misery and 5% fear and that without the language/cultural skills or the childhood immunities, you may just get culled from the herd a little faster than you expected). But, if you are responsible for other people, i.e., clients or students, etc., then you need to do some work. Now I should note here that there are no widespread standards for international programming whether it is adventure education, study abroad, service learning or eco tours, etc. And there are some wonderful small programs doing ambitious trips that do not do a lot of homework or bother with immunizations, chemoprophylaxis, etc and they couldn’t tell you the difference between schistosomiasis and a bot fly. But they are on a first name basis with all the parents (who didn’t believe in childhood immunizations in the first place) and they don’t have any assets to lose anyway.

Accident/Incident analysis, whether it comes from NASA, the Federal Aviation Administration or Outward Bound, shows that accidents/incidents are rarely the result of one bad decision. Invariably, it is the result of chained links of individual choices and organizational decisions coupled with circumstances. Safety is never an absolute. The best you can do is to pursue your safety potential. To do this well involves 3 steps:

Step One - Examine what it is that you want to do and break it down into its components parts.
Step Two - Perform due diligence in getting the necessary information before proceeding. This means really understanding your exposures and the available alternatives.
Step Three - Using risk/benefit analysis (given constraints of time, money and information) make the best interventions that reduce risk.

There are two levels to step 2. The first you can do without leaving your computer. There are a gazillion websites that cover regional and country specific health issues, crime and security, road safety, cross cultural issues, natural disasters, etc. There are websites that will tell you what websites you should look at (including SFS www.fieldstudies.org ). Many of these resources are excellent, but they only take you so far.

For example, let’s say that you want to get a group from point A to point B in a low income country. I am choosing a transportation issue because MVAs are by far the greatest cause of non natural deaths of Americans abroad accounting for 32% between 10/02 and 12/03 (presumably the US State Dept regards all disease as natural). Online you’ll find that trains are statistically safer than buses and buses are safer than cars. You can go the www.asirt.org site to see how the road safety of the country you are in compares to the rest of the world. You can look at the CIA’s country fact sheets or the US State Dept.’s Country road safety evaluations. But when you’re done checking all that out, you still need to get your group from point A to point B.

If you break down road travel into its meaningful components, there are four areas where you may find opportunities for reducing risk:

Exposure – Can you reduce time driving on roads?
Likelihood of getting into an accident – What is the highest quality vehicle you can get and what is the best driver training you can get? Don’t drive at night or in monsoon conditions. Avoid high accident areas. Don’t drive when tired.
Likelihood of injury if you are in an accident – If you can’t get airbags, at least insure that there are seatbelts. Ensure that all heavy objects are tied down. Passengers in larger vehicles have fewer injuries.

Post injury care –Where there is no EMS, emergency medical training is all that much more essential. Have an excellent first aid kit and clear plans for contingencies.

At the School for Field Studies’ Kenya Center, research on wildlife management is conducted from vehicles. Reducing exposure is not an option. So, likelihood of having an accident is reduced by having excellent Land Rovers with full time mechanics and extensively trained drivers. Driving at night is avoided. Time spent on the Nairobi-Mombassa Highway is minimized. Everyone has a seatbelt. 95% of our staff are Kenyan and have a current WAFA and at least one is a WFR. Groups travel in convoys of 5 vehicles which addresses the evacuation issue as well as reducing the likelihood of banditry and hijackings (Kenya Wildlife Service guards with AK-47s ride along for passing through areas of known bandit activity). Each vehicle has a first aid kit, a radio and a cell phone and at least one vehicle is carrying a satphone.

But, if you only needed one or two transports a program, a bus would likely be the best choice. How do you choose the company? You could request copies of all current insurance certificates, safety records and the company’s driver safety program. And when you got tired of waiting for those to show up, due diligence would mean that one of your staff or a representative would need to ride on the company’s buses. They should document the year of bus manufacture, the presence/absence of functional emergency exits and fire extinguishers. Is there tread on the tires and are the inspection stickers current? And most importantly, does the bus driver comply with the rules of the road? How good is the driving? How long do drivers go without a break or a replacement? Is the company open to accommodating any concerns you may have even if it means doing things differently?

Conclusion

Risk management in low and middle income countries is significantly more challenging than in the developed world. The risks are greater and there are no standards for many aspects of safety. In lieu of standards, you need to do due diligence in finding out a broad range of information. Part of the challenge is wading through the overabundant resources available online and part of it is figuring out how to structure the questions and the investigations in country and then being able to conduct them within your time and financial constraints. On the other hand, the recent big increases in travel into developing countries is exactly because it promises more “adventure”.

Bill Frederick is the Safety Director at the School for Field Studies - www.fieldstudies.org

reprinted from the Wilderness Medical Associates Newsletter with permission from the author

International Risk Management

Outdoor Ed — Sun, 14 Feb 2010 17:46:49 GMT

Revision 2 posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 2/14/2010 12:46:49 PM

International Risk Management

risk management, International, Bill Frederick

by Bill Frederick
School for Field Studies

Greater Hazards

85 % of the people exposed to earthquakes, tropical cyclones, floods and droughts live in mid to low income countries.
People in developing countries are 4 times more likely to die from natural disaster events than those in high income countries.
97% of all drowning deaths occur in low and middle income countries. Drowning mortality rates for low and middle income countries (LMIC) per 100,000 population is 7.4. For high income countries (HIC) it is 2.02.
More than 95% of fatal fire related burns occur in low and middle income countries. 4.8/100,000 for LMICs and 1.2/100,000 for HICs.
While 75% of all fatal falls occur in low and middle income countries, the #s per 100,000 are generally higher in high income countries. Lest you think that this may be due to extreme sports, the highest demographic for fatal falls is in the 70 – 79 age range and is indicative of the longer life spans in high income countries.
If you access www.citybriefs.com (requires password) which rates cities for their security and the likelihood of being a victim of violence ( Luxembourg and Reykjavik get a 1; Bogota rates a 6 and Baghdad a 7), you’ll note that no US, Australian, Japanese or European city gets a rating higher than a 4. All the 5, 6 and 7s are awarded to cities in developing countries.
95% of all homicides occur in low and middle income countries. That is 12.8/100,000 in LMICs and 3.0/100,000 for HICs.
In 2002 90% of all road traffic deaths occurred in low and middle income countries. It is highly variable by region however as some economies improve rapidly people take to the roads far ahead of the rate of road development and regulatory systems making for sudden jumps in the carnage level.
There is a higher risk of disease in lower income countries. The lack of funding for water purification and food regulation, sanitation, education, public health initiatives, i.e., childhood immunizations, vector eradication, etc., all contributes to higher disease risks. And developing countries in the tropics also simply have more diseases. If you look at the WHO Disease Maps ( www.who.int/ith/diseasemaps_index.html), you will see the notably higher incidence of diseases in lower income countries.

Fewer Resources

Communications

Road Transportation Infrastructure

Medical Infrastructure

How to Manager Risk Internationally

Step One - Examine what it is that you want to do and break it down into its components parts.
Step Two - Perform due diligence in getting the necessary information before proceeding. This means really understanding your exposures and the available alternatives.
Step Three - Using risk/benefit analysis (given constraints of time, money and information) make the best interventions that reduce risk.

If you break down road travel into its meaningful components, there are four areas where you may find opportunities for reducing risk:

Exposure – Can you reduce time driving on roads?
Likelihood of getting into an accident – What is the highest quality vehicle you can get and what is the best driver training you can get? Don’t drive at night or in monsoon conditions. Avoid high accident areas. Don’t drive when tired.
Likelihood of injury if you are in an accident – If you can’t get airbags, at least insure that there are seatbelts. Ensure that all heavy objects are tied down. Passengers in larger vehicles have fewer injuries.

Post injury care –Where there is no EMS, emergency medical training is all that much more essential. Have an excellent first aid kit and clear plans for contingencies.

Conclusion

Bill Frederick is the Safety Director at the School for Field Studies - www.fieldstudies.org

reprinted from the Wilderness Medical Associates Newsletter with permission from the author

International Risk Management

Outdoor Ed — Sun, 14 Feb 2010 17:45:51 GMT

Revision 1 posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 2/14/2010 12:45:51 PM

Greater Hazards

85 % of the people exposed to earthquakes, tropical cyclones, floods and droughts live in mid to low income countries.
People in developing countries are 4 times more likely to die from natural disaster events than those in high income countries.
97% of all drowning deaths occur in low and middle income countries. Drowning mortality rates for low and middle income countries (LMIC) per 100,000 population is 7.4. For high income countries (HIC) it is 2.02.
More than 95% of fatal fire related burns occur in low and middle income countries. 4.8/100,000 for LMICs and 1.2/100,000 for HICs.
While 75% of all fatal falls occur in low and middle income countries, the #s per 100,000 are generally higher in high income countries. Lest you think that this may be due to extreme sports, the highest demographic for fatal falls is in the 70 – 79 age range and is indicative of the longer life spans in high income countries.
If you access www.citybriefs.com (requires password) which rates cities for their security and the likelihood of being a victim of violence ( Luxembourg and Reykjavik get a 1; Bogota rates a 6 and Baghdad a 7), you’ll note that no US, Australian, Japanese or European city gets a rating higher than a 4. All the 5, 6 and 7s are awarded to cities in developing countries.
95% of all homicides occur in low and middle income countries. That is 12.8/100,000 in LMICs and 3.0/100,000 for HICs.
In 2002 90% of all road traffic deaths occurred in low and middle income countries. It is highly variable by region however as some economies improve rapidly people take to the roads far ahead of the rate of road development and regulatory systems making for sudden jumps in the carnage level.
There is a higher risk of disease in lower income countries. The lack of funding for water purification and food regulation, sanitation, education, public health initiatives, i.e., childhood immunizations, vector eradication, etc., all contributes to higher disease risks. And developing countries in the tropics also simply have more diseases. If you look at the WHO Disease Maps ( www.who.int/ith/diseasemaps_index.html), you will see the notably higher incidence of diseases in lower income countries.

Fewer Resources

Communications

Road Transportation Infrastructure

Medical Infrastructure

How to Manager Risk Internationally

Step One - Examine what it is that you want to do and break it down into its components parts.
Step Two - Perform due diligence in getting the necessary information before proceeding. This means really understanding your exposures and the available alternatives.
Step Three - Using risk/benefit analysis (given constraints of time, money and information) make the best interventions that reduce risk.

If you break down road travel into its meaningful components, there are four areas where you may find opportunities for reducing risk:

Exposure – Can you reduce time driving on roads?
Likelihood of getting into an accident – What is the highest quality vehicle you can get and what is the best driver training you can get? Don’t drive at night or in monsoon conditions. Avoid high accident areas. Don’t drive when tired.
Likelihood of injury if you are in an accident – If you can’t get airbags, at least insure that there are seatbelts. Ensure that all heavy objects are tied down. Passengers in larger vehicles have fewer injuries.

Post injury care –Where there is no EMS, emergency medical training is all that much more essential. Have an excellent first aid kit and clear plans for contingencies.

Conclusion

Bill Frederick is the Safety Director at the School for Field Studies - www.fieldstudies.org

reprinted from the Wilderness Medical Associates Newsletter with permission from the author

Hypothermia: Field Assessment and Treatment

Outdoor Ed — Mon, 28 Dec 2009 06:23:18 GMT

Current Revision posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 12/28/2009 1:23:18 AM

This section is reproduced from chapter 9 of The Backpacker's Field Manual by Rick Curtis with permission of the author. This material is copyrighted by Random House Publishing and may not be reproduced in any fashion.

The body has a number of mechanisms to properly maintain its optimal core temperature of 98.6°F (37°C). Above 105°F (40°C), many body enzymes become denatured and chemical reactions cannot take place, leading to death. Below 98.6°F (37°C), chemical reactions slow down, with various complications that can lead to death. Understanding thermoregulation is important to treating injuries related to heat or cold exposure.

How Your Body Regulates Core Temperature

Vasodilation increases surface blood flow, which increases heat loss (when ambient temperature is less than body temperature).
Vasoconstriction decreases blood flow to the periphery (arms and legs), decreasing heat loss.
Sweating cools the body through evaporative cooling.
Shivering generates heat through increase in chemical reactions required for muscle activity. Visible shivering can maximally increase surface heat production by 500 percent. However, this is limited to a few hours because of depletion of muscle glucose and the onset of fatigue. Active exercise is much more efficient at heating than shivering.
Increasing or decreasing activity will cause corresponding increases in heat production and decreases in heat production.
Behavioral responses, such as putting on or taking off layers of clothing.

Cold Challenge

Whenever you go into an environment that is colder than your body temperature, you are exposed to a cold challenge. As long as your levels of heat production and heat retention (the positive factors) are greater than the cold challenge (the negative factors), then you will be thermoregulating properly. If the cold challenge is greater than your combined heat production and heat retention, then you are susceptible to a cold illness such as hypothermia or frostbite.

Cold Challenge—Negative Factors

Temperature
Body wetness from rain, sweat, water
Wind (see Windchill Index)

Heat Retention—Positive Factors

Body size/shape—your surface-to-volume ratio affects how quickly you lose heat. Children will lose heat faster than adults.
Insulation—type of clothing layers affects how well you retain heat
Body fat—amount of body fat affects how quickly you lose heat
Shell/core response—allows the body shell to act as a thermal barrier (see Shell/Core Response)

Heat Production—Positive Factors

Exercise
Shivering

Windchill

Windchill can have a major impact on heat loss through convection. As air heated by your body is replaced with cooler air pushed by the wind, the amount of heat you can lose in a given period of time increases. This increase is comparable to the amount of heat you would lose at a colder temperature with no wind. The windchill factor takes that rate of heat loss into account and gives a comparable temperature. (see Windchill Index, below).

Wind Chill Chart - Adopted from National Weather Service (NWS) Chart - Courtesy of the CDC

Note: Frostbite occurs in 15 minutes or less at wind chill values of -18° F (° C) or lower

Cold - Weather Injuries

Hypothermia

Hypothermia is a decrease in body core temperature to the point where normal body functions are impaired (see Shell/Core Response, page 000). The key to combating hypothermia is prevention. Although the risks are highest during cold winter conditions, hypothermia can happen at any time of the year.

The classic example of hypothermia is the summer hiker on Mount Washington in New Hampshire dressed in cotton shorts and a T-shirt. The weather changes rapidly. A sudden thunderstorm drops the temperature from 80°F (27°C) to 60°F (16°C) with strong wind and rain. In these conditions, hypothermia can start to occur almost immediately and become severe in less than an hour.

Prevention and Assessment Be aware of the causes of hypothermia, which are usually cool to cold temperatures combined with wetness and wind. Constantly evaluate the environmental conditions and the conditions of your group. Here are some guidelines to staying warm and avoiding hypothermia:

Wear proper clothing. Adjust your clothing frequently so that you are neither too hot nor too cold. Choose materials that keep you warm even when wet.
Stay Dry. Prevent your clothing from getting wet either from sweat or from rain or snow. Wet clothing will rob you of heat 25 times faster than dry clothing. Adjust your clothing layers to prevent overheating and too much sweat from saturated your inner layers. Have proper rain gear to protect your outer layers. If you are too hot and you begin to sweat, the
Be aware of the impact of windchill on increasing the rate of heat loss (see Windchill Index, page 000).
Eat small amounts of food at frequent intervals to maintain the body’s energy reserves. Carry carbohydrates to snack on, because they provide quick energy, and protein and fat to eat before bed, because they burn slowly, providing energy overnight. Try not to push yourself to your physical limits in cold weather. Always leave your body with energy in reserve.
Stay well hydrated. Dehydration quickens hypothermia and hyperthermia, so drink enough fluids (see Fluid Balance page 000)
Avoid caffeine. It is a vasoconstrictor that increases the chances of peripheral frostbite.
Avoid alcohol. It is a vasodilator and increases heat loss.
Be alert to sudden weather changes, make a quick evaluation of your group’s condition, and take active steps to reduce the risk of exposure.

How to Assess if Someone Is Hypothermic

Ask the person a question that requires higher reasoning in the brain (to count backward from 100 by nines). If the person is hypothermic, she won’t be able to do it. (Other conditions besides hypothermia could be the cause see Assessing Mental Status page 000; Seizures page 000).
If shivering can be stopped voluntarily, it is mild hypothermia. If shivering cannot be stopped voluntarily, it is moderate to severe hypothermia.
If you can’t get a radial pulse at the wrist, it indicates a core temperature below about 90°F (32°C). Check pulse and respirations carefully. Even after a full minute, you may not be able to detect a pulse or respirations and yet the person may still be alive. The body may be using a massive shell/core response to maintain basic life functions.
A severely hypothermic person may appear dead. The person may be rigid, blue, and curled up in a fetal position. Try to open her arm up from the fetal position; if it curls back up, the person is alive. Dead muscles won’t contract—only live muscles.

Stages of Hypothermia

Stage	Core Temperature	Signs and Symptoms
Mild	97–95°F (36–35°C)	Shivering begins—can be mild to severe Unable to perform complex tasks with hands Hands numb

Moderate	95–90°F (35–32°C)	Shivering becomes uncontrollable and violentChanges in mental status, mild confusion, higher reasoning becomes impaired; eventually becomes withdrawn, may show "paradoxical undressing"—person imagines they are warm and takes off clothing Muscle incoordination becomes apparent, movements slow and labored, stumbling pace
Severe	90–85°F (32–29°C)	Shivering stops Skin blue or puffy Unable to walk, confusion, muscles become rigid Incoherent/irrational behavior, becomes semiconscious Pulse rate decreases Respiration rate decreases
	85–80°F (29–27°C)	Unconscious Heartbeat and respiration erratic Pulse may not be palpable Cardiac and respiratory failure

Treatment - Mild to Moderate Hypothermia

1. Reduce Heat Loss Remove patient from wind and cold if possible. Remove all wet clothing. Make sure the person is properly clothed (dry wicking layer, fleece, and outer shell). Provide shelter If a person is still shivering, she has the ability to rewarm herself at a rate of 4°F (2°C) per hour if you can stop all further heat loss.

2. Add Fuel and Fluids It is essential to keep a hypothermic person adequately hydrated and fueled. Food intake should include hot liquids, sugars, GORP. One of the best fuels is hot Jello® which contains both protein and sugars (see Food Sources). Avoid alcohol, caffeine, or nicotine.

3. Add Heat Put the hypothermic person in dry clothing, in a sleeping bag. In cases of mild hypothermia you can put another warm, dry person in the bag with her. In cases of moderate hypothermia use chemical heat packs or hot water bottles (see below).

4. Activity Increasing physical activity will help rewarm the victim. Violent shivering is the body’s way of generating hear from muscle contraction so don’t suppress shivering, instead have the person be more active. A mildly hypothermic person can do jumping jacks or run in place which will generate more heat than shivering will. A moderately hypothermic person is best in a sleeping bag to better trap the heat they produce. The person can increase heat production by moving arms and legs or doing isometric exercises inside the sleeping bag.

If the patient’s condition improves, evacuation may not be necessary; but if her condition worsens or does not improve, prepare to evacuate your patient when she is able, or send for help.

Treatment - Moderate to Severe Hypothermia

In addition to the treatment methods outlines above, a severely hypothermia person whousl be treated with the following.

1. Create a Hypothermia Wrap around the Victim. No matter how cold if you provide a shell of total insulation aroung the patient, the victim can still internally rewarm themselves more efficiently than any external field rewarming (hospitals can obviously do a better job). Make sure the patient is dry and has a wicking inner layer next to the skin to minimize sweating. Use a plastic garbage bag as a diaper to prevent urine from soaking the insulation layers. The person must be protected from any moisture in the environment. Use multiple sleeping bags, blankets, clothing, foam pads, etc. to create a minimum of 4 inches (10 centimeters) of insulation all the way around the patient, especially between the patient and the ground. Use foam pads to insulate the person from the ground. Include an aluminum space blanket to help prevent radiant heat loss if you have one. Wrap the entire ensemble in something waterproof like a tarp of tent rainfly to protect from wind and water. Your patient will look like she is in a giant burrito with only her face exposed.

2. Add Fuel and Fluids. At this stage of hypothermia, the stomach has shut down and will not digest solid food but can absorb water and dilute sugars. Give a dilute mixture of warm water with sugar every 15 minutes. Dilute hot Jello® works best, since it is part sugar and part protein and will be absorbed directly into the bloodstream, providing the necessary calories to allow the person to rewarm herself. Do not give full - strength Jell-O, even in liquid form—it is too concentrated and won’t be absorbed.

3. Encourage Urination. The hypothermic person will have to urinate from cold diuresis. Cold Diuresis is a condition where the surface blood vessels constrict in response to cold. This constriction causes greater volume pressure in the circulatory system. The kidneys will "pull off" the excess fluid to reduce the pressure. The kidneys then excrete the fluid, causing the bladder to fill. This is one way in which the body protects the amount of heat lost at the surface. The garbage bag diaper is to allow the person to urinate inside the wrap. Remember that water or urine against the skin will cause faster heat loss. The garbage bag diaper serves as a vapor barrier and minimizes the chilling effect.

4. Add Heat. Heat can be applied to the skin where the major arteries are near the surface—the best places are at the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. You can also use heat packs at the neck for the carotid, at the armpits for the brachial, and at the groin for the femoral artery. Chemical heat packs such as the Heat Wave provide 110°F (43°C) for 6 to 10 hours. You can also use hot water bottles, warm rocks, towels, and compresses. Wrap these in cloth so as not to have the heat source directly against the skin.

5. Rescue Breathing. For a severely hypothermic person, rescue breathing (see Basic Life Support) timed with the victim’s breathing can provide supplemental oxygen and more importantly heated air going directly into the person’s body core (rather then the cold environmental air).

After-Drop

After-drop is a situation in which the core temperature actually decreases during rewarming. As the shell (the arms and legs) are rewarmed, the peripheral vessels in the arms and legs dilate. This dilation sends very cold blood filled with metabolic waste products from the shell into the core, further decreasing the core temperature. It is not possible to prevent after-drop, but slow controlled rewarming, the kind the person’s body is doing on it’s own in a hypothermia wrap, minimizes the negative effect.

After-drop is why you don’t try to apply direct heat sources like chemical heat packs to the person’s arms and legs. This would cause major vasodilation, which would push lots of cold blood back into the core which could cause death. Avoid after - drop by applying heat to the core only!

Evacuation Guidelines

You should not attempt to evacuate someone in a state of severe hypothermia. Moving the person can cause the heart to stop. Send for advanced medical care or wait until the condition stabilizes. If evacuation is delayed it is recommended to put two warm rescuers inside the hypothermia wrap, one on either side of the person.

Hypothermia and CPR

When a person is in severe hypothermia, she may appear to be dead: cold, blue skin; fixed and dilated pupils; no discernible pulse or breathing; comatose and unresponsive to any stimuli; rigid muscles. As a rescuer, you may not be sure, so your job is to rewarm the person and do CPR if indicated. Treatment follows the saying “a hypothermic patient is never cold and dead, only warm and dead.”

1. Make sure you do a complete assessment of heart rate before beginning CPR. Remember, the heart rate may be 2 to 3 per minute and the breathing rate one per thirty seconds. During severe hypothermia, the heart is hyperexcitable, and mechanical stimulation (including CPR, moving the patient, or after-drop, see page 299) may result in ventricular fibrillation, leading to death. As a result CPR itself may be contraindicated for some hypothermia situations. Also, instituting cardiac compressions while the heart is still beating on its own may lead to life - threatening arrhythmias. Check the carotid pulse for a longer time period (up to a full minute) to ascertain if there is some slow heartbeat. Even though the heart is beating very slowly, it is filling completely and distributing blood fairly effectively. External cardiac compressions are only 20 to 30 percent effective. Thus, the body may be able to satisfy its reduced circulatory needs with only 2 to 3 beats per minute. Be sure the pulse is absent before beginning CPR. Once you start doing CPR you will need to continue as you rewarm the person.

2. Ventilation (air being moved in and out of the lungs) may have stopped but respiration (oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange in the blood) may continue. The oxygen demands for the body have been so diminished with hypothermia that the body may be able to survive for some time using only the oxygen that is already in the body. If ventilation has stopped, artificial ventilation (rescue breathing) may be started to increase available oxygen. In addition, blowing warm air into the person’s lungs may assist in internal rewarming.

3. Perform CPR procedures (see Basic Life Support):

Check radial pulse; between 91° and 86°F (33° and 30°C) this pulse disappears.
Check for carotid pulse; wait at least a full minute to check for very slow heartbeat.
If there is a pulse but no breathing or slow breathing, give rescue breathing (also adds heat).
If there is no discernible heartbeat, begin CPR and be prepared to continue—persons with hypothermia have been given CPR for up to 3.5 hours and have recovered with no neurological damage.
Begin active rewarming as described above.

Creating an Industry-wide Risk Management Practices Survey

Outdoor Ed — Tue, 02 Jun 2009 01:23:56 GMT

Current Revision posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 6/1/2009 9:23:56 PM

Creating an Industry-wide Risk Management Practices Survey

risk management, Karen PaisleyAndy Szolosi, Jim Sibthorp, Andy SzolosiKaren Paisley, risk management

by Karen Paisley, Jim Sibthorp, and Andy Szolosi

Abstract

Managing risks in the field is, perhaps, the single most important dimension of running a successful outdoor expeditionary program — a topic that is certainly worthy of dialogue among professionals. In order to have this dialogue, however, we need to develop some sense of a common language regarding field-based hazards and risk management strategies. The purpose of this paper, then, is to describe the process used to create an industry-wide risk management practices survey.

Introduction

In the last decade, the outdoor adventure industry has seen increased growth. The industry's increased growth in popularity can be viewed both from a programmatic and participant perspective within a variety of arenas including educational institutions, therapeutic organizations, youth programs, and commercial outfitters. The problem is that we, as an industry, can't talk about it and don't know how different organizations manage risks. Why not? Among other reasons, some of which are highlighted by the St. Paul (2001) study, many organizations tend to have their own jargon, a language of sorts that is specific to that organization. For example, what do we mean by "risk?" Do we define it in pragmatic terms, such as "the potential for serious injury or death," or in more philosophical terms, such as "an essential program element employed to facilitate desired outcomes?" Or, perhaps even more complicated, what does the term "instructor judgment" conjure in individual risk managers' minds? Without a common vocabulary, any attempts at real communication are limited. In essence, we find ourselves blindly describing and discussing different parts of the proverbial elephant.

In the fall of 2002, the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) approached the University of Utah, as a comparatively impartial player, to develop a risk management taxonomy for outdoor expeditionary programs (OEPs), which we defined as those strips spending two or more nights in the field. The existing relationship between the University of Utah and NOLS has provided a very unique opportunity to conduct action, or applied, research. Action research can be defined as research that is initiated as a result of an immediate response to a specific problem. The intent, then, is that the results and information gained from the study will be immediately applied to how OEPs manage risk. This taxonomy, ideally, would relate risk management strategies and the types of programs that use them: Do programs offering week-long trips rely more or less heavily on instructor judgment than organizations offering 30-day expeditions? Do programs with more stringent participant screenings rely more on participants to self-manage certain risks? Among other applications, such a taxonomy could be incredibly useful for internal self-evaluations, as well as for identifying baseline industry standards.

To develop this taxonomy, the first step was to design a survey for OEPs that would capture a picture of common field hazards, common strategies used to deal with these hazards, and programmatic factors (e.g., program size) that might influence the strategies used to deal with given hazards. We certainly recognize that individual programs experience risks and utilize management strategies that are, in some way, unique to that particular program. The outdoor expeditionary industry is as multi-faceted as its providers, with programs ranging from overnight trips to 30-day expeditions to semesters overseas. However, while acknowledging our diversity, it seems probable that there are some universal concerns and challenges facing the industry as a whole. If we could identify and contain these, we could have a foundation for that meaningful dialogue sought by many risk managers who may feel they are operating in isolation. A risk management vocabulary could not only facilitate communication between individual organizations, but between organizations and insurance agencies, and between organizations and external stakeholders, as well. Further, a common understanding of terms could simplify the internal processes of writing job descriptions and evaluating employees. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to take the first steps toward the creation of an industry-wide risk management taxonomy, to obtain some baseline data, and to foster dialogue among professionals — namely, you.

We, at the U of U, began the study process by reviewing existing literature on risk management. Much of this literature was from other fields (e.g., industrial safety) and was, obviously, not fully relevant to OEPs. While the existing literature offered a poor basis for a common and meaningful language, it did establish a need to further explore the language and terminology employed in OEP risk management.

To address this need, we conducted interviews with some of the industry's risk managers at the 2002 Wilderness Risk Managers Conference (WRMC) in Reno to gain a fundamental overview of industry jargon. We listened to the tape recordings of these interviews and identified two key points: First, while the interviews were fascinating, we weren't much better off than we were before in terms of our literature review. Second, in explanation of the first and as we expected, different individuals held widely varied, often organization-specific definitions of risk management, and these opinions were, in general, held quite strongly. Overall, the results of the interview process suggested a different, more structured approach to the problem. A Delphi process was utilized in order to achieve the needed structure in developing an accurate and meaningful risk management practices survey.

The Delphi Study

Think of the ancient Oracle at Delphi, where confused souls sought the advice of a wise voice. A Delphi study is simply that: a qualitative research technique that seeks to build consensus among a panel of experts, often through several "rounds" of communication. Experts' opinions are sought on an individual basis in response to a specific issue. In this case, opinions were solicited via e-mail on the "issue" of potential survey items addressing our three inter-related concepts: field-based hazards, strategies for managing those hazards, and program characteristics that might be related to the use of those strategies. The individual communication is used to prevent any sense of "peer pressure" from influencing the experts' opinions.

Once all of the responses are received, the research team compiles the initial results, makes any necessary modifications to the material, and sends the information to the experts again. This process is repeated until consensus is achieved. Ideally, in this case, the Delphi study produces an instrument which offers a reasonable amount of confidence in its ability to produce accurate and meaningful results from the people who ultimately respond to the survey.

The Experts

The first step in the study was to identify the panel of experts. Due to the diverse nature of the outdoor industry, we looked for experts to represent a wide range of OEP risk management views. Ultimately, we selected seven individuals as members of the panel, and they represented the following dimensions of the outdoor industry: university programs, industry consultants, "small" (regional) programs, "large" (national) programs, non-profit organizations, residential camping programs, and legal counsel specializing in outdoor recreation law. After being advised of the potential time commitment and other requirements, these representatives agreed to volunteer their time for three rounds of review.

Results

Again, the purpose of this study was to take the first steps toward the creation of an industry-wide risk management taxonomy and to foster dialogue among professionals. The results suggest that we now have a starting point for that vocabulary. The experts provided their express and implied support of the list of 20 final risk management strategies as comprehensive and understandable (see far left column of table 2). Further, they also supported the final list of 15 hazards (see table 1) and provided a starting point for programmatic factors that may influence how organizations choose to deal with risks. While we certainly realize that no list will ever be completely exhaustive, we do have a mutually understood foundation of "universals."

The presentations made in 2003 at the Wilderness Risk Management Conference (WRMC) in Pennsylvania and ICORE in Utah provided a unique opportunity to acquire additional feedback regarding the list of 20 risk management strategies and the list of 15 field-based hazards. Audience members were asked to comment on the language and terms used in each list. In addition, opinions were solicited to determine which risk management strategies were held as the most important in running an OEP (see table 2). The results of this exercise provided an interesting perspective of risk management between the two populations of conference attendees. Audience members at the WRMC reported the Emergency Action Plan to be the most important risk management strategy (12.20%), while ICORE audience members reported Pre-Course Communication as the most vital risk management strategy (14.20%). Other large differences in perspective are highlighted with asterisks in table 2. While these data were not tested for statistically significant differences, the pattern of responses reinforces our belief that different types of programs (defined by various programmatic characteristics such as number of field days, organizational mission, etc.) may manage field-based hazards in different ways. This, in turn, lends support to the idea that the creation of a taxonomy is possible and would be meaningful to practitioners.

With respect to the dialogue so needed by our profession, based on the results of the Delphi process and feedback received at WRMC and ICORE, we were able to create an internet-based survey instrument designed for large-scale, industry-wide use. Individuals who complete this survey for their organization will be able to obtain real-time comparisons to other, similar organizations (based on responses to questions about program characteristics). These results, hopefully, will spark critical examination — both internally and as a profession.

If you would like to participate in this industry-wide effort and to would like to receive a complimentary copy of the final report in the spring of 2004, please visit our web site at http://www.health.utah.edu/prt/rmstudy.

References

Cline, P. & Curtis, R. (2002, November). Risk management for organizations: Keeping the ship afloat. Paper presented at the International Association for Experiential Education Conference, St. Paul, MN.

Kearns, T. & Maughlin, M. (2002, October) Outdoor Campus Engineers: Standards of care at college and university outdoor recreation programs. Paper presented at the International Conference on Outdoor Recreation and Education, Charleston, SC.

The St. Paul Group (2001). Rocky terrain: A look at the risks in the outdoor adventure industry. St. Paul, MN: Author.

Biographies

Karen Paisley and Jim Sibthorp are Assistant Professors in the Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism at the University of Utah. Andy Szolosi is a doctoral student in the same department. Inquiries regarding this paper or study should be submitted to Andy Szolosi.

Table 1: Specific field-based hazards

1. Risk inherent in the program activity itself

2. Driving/Transportation

3. Environmental

4. Participant misbehavior

5. Staff incompetence

6. Medical management

7. Lack of participant supervision

8. Poor instruction

9. Equipment malfunction

10. Misalignment of program activity with program policy

11. Inappropriate staff to participant interaction/contact

12. Public interactions

13. Competition with other institutions

14. Poor nutrition and dehydration

15. Poor hygiene

Table 2: Conference Perspectives on Importance of Risk Management Strategies: Percentages of Votes Cast by Strategy

Risk Management Strategies	WRMC (328 total votes)	ICORE (169 total votes)
Field Staff Screening	7.92%	7.69%
Formal Wilderness Medical Training Requirement of Field Staff	8.84%	11.24%
Mentoring & Apprenticeship	.60%	.91%
Field Staff Training*	8.53%	13.60%
Field Staff (Instructor) Judgment	7.62%	6.50%
Supervision of Field Staff	.60%	0.00%
Participant Screening *	6.70%	.60%
Pre-Course Communication *	6.09%	14.20%
Participant Training	.91%	3.55%
Supervision of Participants *	8.23%	.60%
Ratios of Field Staff to Participants	4.88%	6.51%
Emergency Action Plan	12.20%	8.28%
Policies and Procedures	7.93%	11.24%
Critical Incident Stress Debriefing	0.00%	0.00%
Internal Incident Review Procedure	.60%	.60%
External Incident Review Procedure	0.00%	0.00%
Internal Review of Safety Management Protocols	.60%	0.00%
External Review of Safety Management Protocols	.60%	0.00%
Course Documentation *	5.49%	.60%
Course Debriefings	2.13%	2.37%
Venue Evaluation or Location Scouting	6.40%	7.69%

Copyright © 2000 - 2009 Outdoor Ed LLC. All rights reserved. Outdoor Ed LLC is granted full permission to display the article and all associated material. This material may not be reproduced or extracted in any fashion electronic or otherwise without the express permission of the original author.

Lightning Hazards & Safety

Outdoor Ed — Tue, 26 May 2009 04:59:09 GMT

Current Revision posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 5/26/2009 12:59:09 AM

Lightning Hazards & Safety

Lightning

Lightning Hazards & Safety

by Rick Curtis

I always teach our student leaders how to deal with lightning. It's never a very popular protocol, being crouched in the lightning position in the middle of the night in a thunderstorm, but the recent tragedy involving a Boy Scout troop backpacking in the Sierras which left a Scout Master and a child dead points out how serious the danger can be. Summer storms are common, particularly in the mountains so everyone should be prepared to react quickly and decisively when a thunderstorm approaches. The following information is adapted from my chapter on Weather in the Second Edition of The Backpacker's Field Manual.

Rick Curtis

Where does lightning come from?

In a mature thunderhead strong negative charges form in the base of the cloud, while a layer of positive charges forms at the top. Since like charges repel each other, the negatively charged base of the cloud has an effect on the electrical charges on the ground beneath it, 'pushing' the negative electrons on the ground away and leaving an area of positive charge directly beneath the cloud that follows the cloud as it moves.

Normally air is normally a poor conductor, however when the electrical differences between the cloud and the ground become great enough, even air molecules will conduct an electrical current. That's what a lightning flash is, a flow of these separated positive and negative charges back together again along ionized air. About 85% of lightning occurs within a cloud. You see this as cloud flashes, often referred to as sheet lightning. This is nature's way of trying to 'equalize' the electrical differential between positive and negative charge.

Cloud-to-ground lightning, (10-15% of lightning strikes), begins at the base of the cloud. An invisible stroke of negatively charged electrons known as a stepped leader zigzags tens of thousands of feet down towards the ground. When the negatively charged stepped leader gets to within a few hundred feet (50 to 100 meters) of the ground, a positively charged upward leader or streamer leaps off the ground toward the stepped leader, typically from a tall object like a building or tree. There actually may be a number of streamers trying to make contact with the leader, only one will connect. Once the connection is made the electrical circuit is complete; a rush of positive charges from the ground flows up into the cloud and negative charges flow from the cloud into the ground. The lightning flash that you see is the flow of charges from the ground to the cloud. The suddenly electrical charge releases an incredibly amount of heat (more than 43,000°F (24,000°C)). The air immediate around the lightning expands violently, and then contracts creating a sound wave--thunder.

Storm Distance and the 30/30 Rule

Thunder, the sound of the super-heated air around the lightning strike travels about one-fifth of a mile per second (1/3 of a kilometer per second). To determine the distance between where the lightning strike hit and your position count the number of seconds between the lightning flash and the thunder, and divide by 5. (For kilometers divide by 3.)

If the thunder happens within 30 seconds of the lightning, then the storm is within 6 miles (10 kilometers) of your location. Lightning safety experts consider this the strike danger zone and advise people to follow the 30/30 rule. Take immediate precautions when thunder is heard within 30 seconds of the lightning flash and wait for 30 minutes after the last thunder is heard to resume your activity. In most backcountry settings you simply can't 'stop' being in the outdoors, but you should find a safe location and stay there until the storm has passed. While the lightning is still miles away some storms move at 35 to 40 miles per hour (56 to 64 kilometers per hour), so the lightning can be right on top of you within minutes. If you see a lightning flash and don't hear any thunder then the storm is 15 miles (24 kilometers) or more away (the sound waves won't travel past that distance). So you don't need to start taking precautions, yet, but continue to monitor the storm.

Warning Signs of Lightning

Any or all of the following may indicate the possibility of imminent lightning:

Thunder, even without any visible lightning.
A sudden cloudburst of enormous raindrops or huge hailstones.
A fast-moving cold front; these often trigger thunderstorms along a squall line ahead of the front as it pushes warm moist air upward. A change in wind direction with a sudden blast of cold air is often an indication of an incoming cold front.
Signs of highly charged air--any of the following signs is an indication of serious lightning potential: hair standing on end or crackling; crackling noises or buzzing in the air; small sparks given off around metal objects; bluish glow around objects, known as Saint Elmo's fire.

Lightning Dangers

A Direct Strike

Direct lightning strikes are rare, but like the Boy Scout situation described above, they do occur. Almost anything can send up an upward leader. Typically the upward leader that 'wins' will come from the point with the least resistance to conducting electricity and/or the closest point to the stepped leader. High and relatively sharp points like radio antennas, mountain summits, sharp ridge lines, trees, or a standing person are most susceptible.

Side Flashes

Side flashes are extremely dangerous and account for a significant percentage of lightning injuries. As the return stroke travels to the ground, the object that sent up the upward leader may not be the best conductor of electricity. If the return stroke encounters electrical resistance it may 'arc off' that object to something else looking for an easier path to ground. Depending on how well grounded the object is, a side flash can arc 30 to 50 feet (10 to 15 meters). The arc distance for a 'moderately' well-ground tree is 16 feet (5 meters). Unlike ground current, which dissipates as it spreads out, a side flash carries a full electrical current. Side flashes can arc through the air or along the ground. Standing too close to a tree that is struck by lightning can result in being hit by a side flash with the same dangerous result as a direct strike.

Ground Currents

Once the lightning hits the ground, the electrical current spreads out in all directions along the ground following numerous paths of least resistance, dissipating as it goes. This is known as ground current, and injuries from ground currents are much more frequent than direct strikes. Ground current pathways include cracks and crevices filled with water, wet rock, wet climbing ropes, root systems, and cables along the ground. In some cases the easiest path may be to 'jump' across a gap of ionized air. This is known as a spark gap. This can occur at the openings of caves or under overhangs, where it is easier for the current to jump across the gap than to travel all the way around. If you are between the two sides of the gap, the current will flow right through you, so taking shelter at the opening of a cave may be more hazardous than being out in the open. When lightning strikes the water it dissipates in all directions; being in or on the water can put you in the path of ground current. Ground currents can be as dangerous as direct hits if you happen to be in their path and can result in thermal burns or cardiac arrest.

Protection from Lightning Strikes

To minimize your risk from lightning, your goal is to find the location that is least likely to send up an upward leader. Obviously, the major sources for upward leaders are things like mountain peaks, exposed ridges, and tall trees. You want to get away from these objects, but if you get too far away--out into an open field, for example--you may set yourself up as another likely source. For example, if you are near a pinnacle, stay inside a zone where your horizontal distance from the pinnacle is about one to one-half less than the pinnacle's height above you. It is best if the pinnacle is five to ten times your height to get a reasonable distance away from the potential strike location. This assumption is based on how a lightning rod works.

Get off of summits, ridges, pinnacles, or any other place that is the highest location around. Even a few yards (meters) lower may offer some protection.
Stay away from taller trees. If you are in a forest, try to find a group of lower trees that are less likely to be a strike site.
If you are in the middle of an open field, the best thing to do is get into a low-lying area and assume the lightning position.
If you are on the water, get to shore.
Stay out of depressions, gullies, or drainages that may have water flowing in them.
Find a position partway down a slope. Dry or well-drained ground is best.
Avoid caves and overhangs unless they are clearly dry and spacious. These are usually part of a larger system of cracks and fissures, which are likely conduits for ground currents, especially if they are wet. Don't seek shelter in caves, under boulders or overhangs, or in bunkers unless they are dry and unless you have at least 20 feet (6 meters) of headroom and 4 feet (2 meters) of space on every side.

Where You Want to Be

In the lighting position.
Crouching on top of your pack.
Crouching on top of a boulder that is resting on top of other rocks.

What to Do in a Severe Lightning Storm

Most lightning storms move away fairly quickly. With good rain gear, you should be able to stay relatively dry until the storm has passed, even out in the open. Hypothermia could be a problem if you become wet, but that's a secondary problem compared to imminent lightning danger. Here is what you should do if you are in immediate danger from lightning:

Spread Out If the group is in an area of high lightning danger, the group should not wait out the storm huddled together. Split up but still be within sight of each other--20 feet (6 meters) apart or more--unless this puts some people in a site with a higher strike potential. The survival of one person whose heart or breathing has stopped as a result of a strike may depend on prompt action by companions. If you don?t already know it, learn CPR.
Assume the Lightning Position Anytime thunder is 30 seconds or less from the lightning, the storm is within 6 miles (10 kilometers), and you should assume the lightning position. There are two basic positions, one is a crouch position with your feet close together and your butt off the ground. The other is sitting down with your arms crossed at your chest. In either position your hands should not be touching any part of your body below your waist (such as your knees). Don't lie down on the ground. Don't put your hands on the ground. If possible, you can crouch on top of a dry, insulating material like a foam pad or your pack.

The idea behind the ligtning position is to channel any electric current through less critical areas of the body (the legs). In the lightning position if you were in the path of a ground current, it would travel up one leg and out the other, minimizing the parts of the body affected. If a hand is on the ground (or on any other part of your body below your waist), the current could just as easily flow up through the arm and out a leg traveling directly through the major organs, including your heart, potentially causing significant organ damage including cardiac arrest.

Crouch Position

Seated Position

Lightning Injuries

Electrical currents can cause the heart to stop, respiration to cease, thermal burns, muscle spasms, brain and nerve damage, and initial blindness. The extent of injury depends on the amount of current, the duration of the current, and the current's path through the body. With a direct strike or side flash, the current is usually so large that the results are fatal. Ground currents can be significantly less powerful, and the current path makes a major difference. If person is lying down, the current can enter through an arm and exit through a leg traversing all the major organs and causing significant damage and frequently stop the heart. If the person is crouching in the lightning position with hands off the ground the current could go up one leg and down the other without passing directly through the heart. Other injuries from lightning include ruptured eardrums, burns and even traumatic injuries since a direct strike can literally hurl a person many feet/meters through the air.

Treatment

The most dangerous situation in a lightning strike is that the heart may stop beating. Be prepared to administer CPR. Lightning is one of the few CPR situations where you may be able to revive someone without advanced life support so continue to do CPR as long as possible. Also, there may be electrical burns that can cause volume shock. Anyone who has been struck by lighting or ground current must be evacuated for advanced medical care.

Lightning Resources

National Weather Service: www.nws.noaa.gov
The Weather Channel: www.weather.com
Colorado Lightning Resource Center - www.crh.noaa.gov/pub/ltg.shtml
Lightning Resources USATODAY.com - www.usatoday.com/weather/resources/basics/wlightning.htm
National Lightning Safety Institute - www.lightningsafety.com

Lightning Hazards & Safety

Outdoor Ed — Tue, 26 May 2009 03:23:08 GMT

Revision 3 posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 5/25/2009 11:23:08 PM

Lightning Hazards & Safety

Lightning

Lightning Hazards & Safety

by Rick Curtis

Rick Curtis

Where does lightning come from?

Storm Distance and the 30/30 Rule

Warning Signs of Lightning

Any or all of the following may indicate the possibility of imminent lightning:

Thunder, even without any visible lightning.
A sudden cloudburst of enormous raindrops or huge hailstones.
A fast-moving cold front; these often trigger thunderstorms along a squall line ahead of the front as it pushes warm moist air upward. A change in wind direction with a sudden blast of cold air is often an indication of an incoming cold front.
Signs of highly charged air--any of the following signs is an indication of serious lightning potential: hair standing on end or crackling; crackling noises or buzzing in the air; small sparks given off around metal objects; bluish glow around objects, known as Saint Elmo's fire.

Lightning Dangers

A Direct Strike

Side Flashes

Ground Currents

Protection from Lightning Strikes

Get off of summits, ridges, pinnacles, or any other place that is the highest location around. Even a few yards (meters) lower may offer some protection.
Stay away from taller trees. If you are in a forest, try to find a group of lower trees that are less likely to be a strike site.
If you are in the middle of an open field, the best thing to do is get into a low-lying area and assume the lightning position.
If you are on the water, get to shore.
Stay out of depressions, gullies, or drainages that may have water flowing in them.
Find a position partway down a slope. Dry or well-drained ground is best.
Avoid caves and overhangs unless they are clearly dry and spacious. These are usually part of a larger system of cracks and fissures, which are likely conduits for ground currents, especially if they are wet. Don't seek shelter in caves, under boulders or overhangs, or in bunkers unless they are dry and unless you have at least 20 feet (6 meters) of headroom and 4 feet (2 meters) of space on every side.

Where You Want to Be

In the lighting position.
Crouching on top of your pack.
Crouching on top of a boulder that is resting on top of other rocks.

What to Do in a Severe Lightning Storm

Spread Out If the group is in an area of high lightning danger, the group should not wait out the storm huddled together. Split up but still be within sight of each other--20 feet (6 meters) apart or more--unless this puts some people in a site with a higher strike potential. The survival of one person whose heart or breathing has stopped as a result of a strike may depend on prompt action by companions. If you don?t already know it, learn CPR.
Assume the Lightning Position Anytime thunder is 30 seconds or less from the lightning, the storm is within 6 miles (10 kilometers), and you should assume the lightning position. There are two basic positions, one is a crouch position with your feet close together and your butt off the ground. Your The other is sitting down with your arms crossed at your chest. In either position your hands should not be on touching any part of your kneesbody below your waist (such as your knees). Don't lie down on the ground. Don't put your hands on the ground. If possible, you can crouch on top of a dry, insulating material like a foam pad or your pack. If

The idea behind the ligtning position is to channel any electric current through less critical areas of the body (the legs). In the lightning position if you were in the path of a ground current, it would travel up one leg and out the other, minimizing the parts of the body affected. If a hand is on the ground (or on any other part of your body below your waist), the current could just as likely easily flow up through the arm and out a leg traveling directly through the major organs, including your heart, potentially causing significant organ damage including cardiac arrest.

Lightning Injuries

Treatment

Lightning Resources

National Weather Service: www.nws.noaa.gov
The Weather Channel: www.weather.com
Colorado Lightning Resource Center - www.crh.noaa.gov/pub/ltg.shtml
Lightning Resources USATODAY.com - www.usatoday.com/weather/resources/basics/wlightning.htm
National Lightning Safety Institute - www.lightningsafety.com

Dynamic Menu Planning with Spreadsheets

Outdoor Ed — Mon, 18 May 2009 01:24:07 GMT

Current Revision posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 5/17/2009 9:24:07 PM

Dynamic Menu Planning with Spreadsheets

menu planning, technologyoutdoor orientation, spreadsheet, outdoor orientationtechnology

by Rick Curtis

Just a note: In order to make it easier to understand the logic of how this spreadsheet works I have pasted a full-width copy of the spreadsheet into this page. That means you will have to scroll over in order to see what's going on.

Each year the Outdoor Action Program at Princeton University sends out about seventy 6-day backpacking trips, that's over 850 people in the field. Feeding this small army of folks is a big task. Due to the large size of our program and because leaders only return a few days before the trip goes out at the end of the summer, we do a central menu plan rather than have each group develop their own menu. Since we are only out for six days it makes more sense to work from a set menu rather than providing a range of food items and let the group develop a menu on the trail. By purchasing in bulk we save significant money.

Over the years in order to streamline the planning and ordering process I developed an Excel spreadsheet to help me lay out the menu, and, most importantly, make sure that I ordered enough food. The spreadsheet is pretty basic. Below is a sample food item. I'll walk you through how the spreadsheet works and explain the underlying formulas.

Download a Copy of the Food Planner Spreadsheet

You can see that I've created a replica of the spreadsheet complete with column headings and row numbers. I'll use the standard A1..B2 spreadsheet referencing scheme to point out the particular features of the spreadsheet. You can follow along by looking at the sample table laid out below.

The first set of important cells are highlighted in yellow. The are master values in these cells drive much of the spreadsheet. Cell G2 (Groups) is the number of actual trip groups that are going out. Cell F2 (Order) is the number of groups that I am going to order for. This is to give us a little extra food in case another trip is adding at the end of the summer and so we have some extra for some or our fall programs. Cell H2 (>10) is the number of groups that have more than 10 people. Our groups on the Appalachian Trail are 10 while groups in some other areas like the Catskills are 12. Cell I2 (Kosher) is the number of trips we have with observant Jewish Students who keep Kosher.

	F	G	H	I
1	Order	Groups	>10	Kosher
2	71	68	46	3

So take a look at Row 4. Here you see the heading labels for each column. Looking at our example, Heartland Granola in Row 5, let's just work our way across the row. I have duplicated Row 5 twice, once with the numerical values and the second time showing the formulas in each cell.

A5 - Item Name
B5 - Amount that each group gets of this item.
C5 - How the item is packaged
D5 - How many per case
E5 - The size of each item
F5 - This cell takes its value from cell F2 with the formula =$F$2
G5 - Calculated field for now many of this item is needed. The formula is =B5*F5 or (Amount/group * Number of Groups)
H5 - Simply a duplication of cell C5 showing the unit - =$C$5
I5 - How many cases you are going to order. This is a field that you play with. By changing the number of cases you change the outcome further on (watch and you'll see).
J5 - The Product ID code
K5 - The price per item. This is a calculated field =M5/D5 or (Case price/ the number of items per case)
L5 - How the item is priced. In this case E stands for each as in $2.60 for each box.
M5 - The case price from the wholesaler.
N5 - The extended price from the formula =I5*M5 or (Cases ordered * Case Price). This price will change as you change the number of cases ordered in I5.
O5 - How many left over items you will have from the formula =(I5*D5)-G5 or (Cases Ordered* Number/case) - Number Needed for all groups). This will change as you change the number of cases ordered in I5.
P5 - How the item is packaged
Q5 - With some items we give groups over 10 some extra. In this case each group over 10 gets 1 extra box of granola. As a result we need to do a second calculation on the number of boxes we will have left over.
R5 - This is the second calculation for the number of left over boxes after adding in the extra food handed out. It is calculated using the formula =O5-($H$2*Q5) or (The number left over initially - (The Number of Groups over 10 * How many extra of this item each group over 10 gets))
S5 - Simply a duplication of cell C5 showing the unit =$C$5

FROSH TRIP FOOD LIST

Unit Codes: LB=pound, E=each, C=case, B=Box

Order

Groups

>10

Kosher

ITEM

NO. OF

ORDER

PRODUCT

UNIT

CASE

EXTENDED

10+

LEFT

BREAKFAST

AMOUNT/

GROUP

PER CASE

SIZE

GROUPS

TRIPS

NEED

CASES

CODE

PRICE

UNIT

PRICE

EXTRA

GROUPS

OVER

Heartland Granola

boxes

16 oz.

142

boxes

9242975

$2.60

$31.20

$561.60

boxes

Heartland Granola

Enter this Number

boxes

Enter number /case

Enter size/unit

=$F$2

=B5*F6

=$C$5

Enter Cases Ordered

=M5/D5

Enter Case Price

=I5*M5

=(I5*D5)-G5

=$C$5

Enter how many extra each group gets

=O5-($H$2*Q5)

=$C$5

By now you must be dizzy looking back and forth between the list and scrolling across the spreadsheet. You have the basic idea. There are a few extra modifications I've made to the spreadsheet that take into account some other factors. You might be wondering since I am using Cell F2 to set the number of groups I am ordering for why I bother with Cell G2, the number of groups. Well that's because for all nonperishable items I use the F2 number, but for perishables like cheese, pita's, etc. I don't want things to go to waste and we don't have the refrigeration facilities to keep the stuff. So with perishable items I use the value of G2 in what would be cell F5 in this example. I do the same thing with Cell I3 for the kosher items I order. You can see how the numbers in column F change when you look at the whole spreadsheet.

There are also a few cells that have some special formulas in them. Mostly this happens with Fresh Produce. Produce is often sold by the pound but I am handing out a specific number of apples, green peppers, etc. per group so I have to calculate the number ordered based on the actual count. Talking to my supplier I find out that a 28 pound box of green peppers is about 75 peppers (75 count). So I alter the formula for the number of extra needed in Cell O to be =(I64*75)-G64 or (Cases Ordered* Count) - Number Needed. The other thing to keep in mind with produce there is a 2%-%5 spoilage rate. That is in a box of 75 count of green peppers there are going to be 2-5% that are so skanky-looking that you wouldn't dare give them out to anyone. The same is true for oranges and to a lesser extent with apples. It doesn't happen much with onions and garlic cloves. The bottom line is know your produce!

So that's the concept. Once I have planned the menu and know the items needed for each group I enter the information into the spreadsheet. What's great about this is if suddenly I increase to 70 real trips up from 68 all I need to do is change Cell G2 to 70 and up Cell F2 to 74 and the entire spreadsheet recalculates. Now I haven't yet changed the number of cases ordered in column I so chances are if I look over at column O for the number of extra items I'll probably see some negative numbers, meaning that I am going to be short. I can simply up the number of cases ordered in column O until I have an overage that I am comfortable with. When I am all set I send the spreadsheet to my supplier for them to process my order. Of course like any spreadsheet this one also calculates the total food cost for budget planning purposes.

This spreadsheet has saved me countless hours of hand figuring over the years and every year we are right on the money with the amount of food we need and our little extra to tide us over for fall trips. I hope that this is helpful for your menu planning.

Below is the full spreadsheet. Hope you don't get too dizzy.

	A	B	C	D		E	F	G	H	I	J	K	L	M	N	O	P	Q	R
1						Order	Groups	>10	Kosher
2						71	68	46	3
3	ITEM		AMOUNT/			NO. OF			ORDER	PRODUCT	UNIT		CASE	EXTENDED			10+	LEFT
4	BREAKFAST		GROUP	PER CASE	SIZE	GROUPS	TRIPS	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
5	Heartland Granola	2	boxes	12	16 oz.	71	142	boxes	18	9242975	$2.60	E	$31.20	$561.60	74	boxes	1	28	boxes
6	Cracklin' Oat Bran	2	boxes	14	17 oz.	71	142	boxes	12	7524259	$5.22	E	$73.13	$877.56	26	boxes
7	Mueslix - Kelloggs Crunchy	2	boxes	12	15.9 oz.	71	142	boxes	14	9242652	$4.97	E	$59.68	$835.52	26	boxes
8	Quaker Oatmeal Fruit Variety Flavor Packets	3	box	12	10 envelopes/ box	71	213	boxes	20	9242678	$3.63	E	$43.55	$871.00	27	boxes
9	Quaker Oatmeal Regular Variety Flavor Packets	4	box	12	10 envelopes/ box	71	284	boxes	26	9129289	$2.51	E	$30.08	$782.08	28	boxes
10	LUNCH		GROUP	PER CASE	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
11	Peanut Butter, Jiffy Chunky - plastic bottles	2	bottle	6	40 oz. plastic bottle	71	142	bottles	28		$4.28	E	$25.70	$719.60	26	bottles
12	Peanut Butter, Jiffy Creamy - plastic bottles	1	bottle	8	40 oz. plastic bottle	71	71	bottles	12	9242710	$5.34	E	$42.68	$512.16	25	bottles
13	Strawberry Jelly - Welch's squeezable plastic bottles (HDPE)	2	bottle	12	22 oz. plastic bottle	71	142	bottles	14		$1.52	E	$18.25	$255.50	26	bottles
14	Honey - plastic bottles	2	bear	12	12 oz. plastic bear	71	142	bears	14	8826893	$1.97	E	$23.64	$330.96	26	bears
15	Hummus - Fantastic Foods	2	boxes	10	7 oz.	71	142	boxes	17		$2.40	C	$24.00	$15.00	28	boxes
16	Tuna - chunk light	5	cans	24	12.5 oz/can	71	355	cans	19			C			101	cans	1	55	cans
17	Crackers - Stoned Wheat Thins	6	boxes	12	10 oz./box	68	408	boxes	46	Valley Brook	$1.84	B	$22.12	$1,017.52	144	boxes	2	52	boxes
18	Dried Apples - Packer	1.2	pounds	44	44 Ib. box	65	78	pounds	2	1967363	$2.87	LB	$126.28	$252.56	10	pounds
19	Dried Apricots - Packer	0.8	pounds	28	28 Ib. box	65	52	pounds	2	8115032	$2.49	LB	$69.59	$139.18	4	pounds
20	Dried Peaches	1	pounds	25	25 Ib. Box	65	65	pounds	3	3886421	$2.60	LB	$65.07	$195.21	10	pounds
21	Peanuts,Rstd.,Shelled, unsalted	7	pounds	50	50 pounds	68	476	pounds	12	5760970	$1.98	LB	$99.00	$1,188.00	124	pounds	1.25	66.5	pounds
22	Raisins Golden - seedless (1# for breakfast)	7	pounds	30	30 pound box	68	476	pounds	19	6126718	$1.77	LB	$53.11	$1,009.09	94	pounds	1.25	36.5	pounds
23	Harmony Snackums (M&M's)	7	pounds	19	19 pound box	68	476	pounds	29	5252390	$3.18	LB	$60.50	$1,754.50	75	pounds	1	29	pounds
24	Sunflower Seeds - roasted, unsalted	1	bags	3	2 pound bags	68	68	bags	37	4645453	$4.46	C	$13.37	$494.69	43	bags	0.5	20	bags
25	Fig Newtons	4	tubes	24	8 oz	71	284	boxes	14	4482162	$1.78	E	$42.60	$596.40	52	tubes
26	Granola bar - Nature Valley Peanut Butter	10	bar	144	0.8 oz	71	710	bars	6	4069704	$0.20	E	$27.09	$162.54	154	bars
27	Granola bar - Nature Valley Cinnamon	10	bar	144	0.8 oz	71	700	bars	6	4069712	$0.20	E	$27.39	$164.34	164	bars
28	Granola bar - Nature Valley Oats & Honey	10	bar	144	0.8 oz	71	700	bars	6	4069720	$0.20	E	$27.70	$166.20	164	bars
29	DINNER		GROUP	PER CASE	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
30	Canned Chicken	8	cans	12	10 oz.	71	568	cans	59	9242595	$3.79	E	$45.46	$2,682.14	140	cans	2	48	cans
31	Sysco Classic Angel Hair Noodles	3	pounds	12	1 pound	71	213	pounds		5016464	$15.00	E		$0.00	-213	pounds
32	Couscous - Near East Roasted Garlic and Olive Oil	3	boxes	12	5.8 oz.	71	213	boxes	24	5076765	$1.55		$18.56	$445.44	75	boxes	1	29
33	Canned Corn - Best Yet	1	can	24	15.25 oz.	68	68	cans	5		$0.52		$12.37	$61.85	52	cans
34	Canned Black Beans - Goya	1	can	24	15.5 oz.	68	68	cans	5		$0.63		$15.10	$75.50	52	cans
35	Contadina Pizza Sauce in Squeeze Bottle	2	bottle	12	15 oz. Squeeze bottle	71	142	bottles	13	Valley Brook	$1.36		$16.30	$211.90	14	bottles
36	Jello No-bake Peanut Butter Cup Pie	2	boxes	12	11.2 oz box	71	142	boxes	13		$2.76		$33.06	$429.78	14	0
37	Jello No-bake cheesecake	2	boxes	12	11.2 oz box	71	142	boxes	13		$2.63	C	$31.50	$409.50	14	0
38	Refried Beans - dried mix by Fantastic Foods	2	boxes	12	7 oz/box	71	142	boxes	13		$2.00	C	$24.00	$312.00	14	boxes
39	Pesto Pasta Blend Sauce Mix	4	envelopes	12	0.5 oz./envelope	70	280	envelopes	32		$1.31		$15.68	$501.76	104	envelopes	1	58	envelopes
40	Egg Noodles	1	bags		16 oz. bag	71								$0.00	0			0
41	Tomato Paste	2	cans		6 oz. can	71								$0.00	0			0
42	Fantastic Foods Dried Black Beans	1	box		7 oz. box	71		boxes						$0.00	0			0
43	Textured Vegetable Protein	1.5	cups			71								$0.00	0			0
45	Chili Powder - McCormick?	1	envelope			71								$0.00	0			0
45	MISCELLANEOUS		GROUP	PER CASE	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
46	Powdered Milk - nonfat	2	pounds	12	1 pounds	71	142	pounds	13	9242934	$4.92	LB	$59.05	$767.65	14	pounds
47	Brown Sugar	1	pounds	24	1 pounds	71	71	pounds	4	4281440	$0.61	LB	$14.68	$58.72	25	pounds
48	Lemonade Mix	1	bags	12	24 oz.	71	71	bags	7	4138632	$1.88	E	$22.54	$157.78	13	bags
49	Gatorade Powder Drink mix - Lemon Lime	1	bags	12	18 oz.	71	71	bags	7	9129453	$4.86	E	$58.27	$407.89	13	bags	1	-33	bags
50	Tang	1	bags	12	21 oz.	71	71	bags	7	9242785	$3.78	E	$45.31	$317.17	13	bags
51	Variety Pack of Herbal Tea Bags - Bigelow	1	box	6	28 bags	71	71	boxes	13	4041935	$3.02	E	$18.13	$235.69	7	boxes
52	Hot Chocolate - Nestles Cocoa Mix	2	bags	12	1.75 pounds	71	142	bags	14	4060760	$4.23	E	$50.70	$709.80	26	bags
53	FRESH - F = arrive Friday		GROUP	PER CASE	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
54	Cheddar Cheese - New York Mild waxed brick	4	bricks	6	2# waxed bricks	68	272	bricks	47	3162245	$8.50	LB	$50.98	$2,396.06	10	bricks
55	Flour Tortillas - 10"	4	pkg.	12	12 per package	68	272	pkg.	25	2386159	$1.90	Pkg.	$22.75	$568.75	28	pkg.
56	Squeeze Parkay	2	bottle	24	16 oz./plastic bottle	68	136	bottle	7		$1.78	E	$42.80	$299.60	32	bottle
57	Kronos Pita Bread 7 " - bulk pack	8	package	12	10 per package	68	544	count	55	1309863	$2.10	Pkg.	$25.17	$1,384.35	116	count	2	24	count
58	Apples - Red Delicious 88 count	18	count	88	count	68	1224	count	17		$0.41	E	$35.82	$608.94	272	count	3	134	count
59	Parmesan Cheese - cardboard container	1	can	12	3 oz./can	71	71	cans	7		$4.02	E	$48.25	$337.75	13	cans
60	Pepperoni	1	stick	10	1 lb.Sticks	68	68	sticks	7	1253699	$3.82	E	$38.20	$267.40	2	sticks
61	Oranges - Valencia 72 count	18	count	72	count	68	1224	count	21		$0.28	E	$20.00	$420.00	288	count	4	104	count
62	Onions - #1	5	count	50	50 lb. = 150 count	68	340	count	3		$0.28	LB	$14.00	$42.00	110	count	1	64	count
63	Green Peppers - medium	5	count	28	28 lb. = 75 count	68	340	count	6		$0.61	LB	$17.00	$102.00	110	count	1	64	count
64	Garlic cloves	1	clove	40	5 pound = 40 cloves	68	68	cloves	2		$0.21	E	$8.25	$16.50	12	cloves
65	STORAGE & MISCELLANEOUS		GROUP	PER CASE	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
66	Ziplock Bags - gallon	0.25	boxes	9	boxes/40 count	71	17.75	boxes	3		$3.06	E	$27.56	$82.68	9.25	boxes
67	Ziplock Bags - quart	0.25	boxes	12	boxes/32 count	71	17.75	boxes	3		$2.53	E	$30.40	$91.20	18.25	boxes
68					right number per box?
69	SPICES		GROUP	PER CASE	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
70	Tostitos Mild Salsa	1	bottles	9	28 oz. plastic bottle	71	71	bottles	10	9242645	$2.97	E	$26.75	$267.50	19	bottles
71	Cinnamon - ground	1	bottles
72	Salt & Pepper - rotate lids	1	set bottles	12	2 oz. containers	71	71	bottles	8		$1.38	E	$16.50	$132.00	25	container
73	Oregano	1	bottle	12	0.75 oz. plastic bottle	71	71	bottles	7	9242868	$0.00	E		$0.00	13	bottles
74	Cumin	1	bottle	12		71	71	bottles	7			E		$0.00	13	bottles
75	Tabasco Pepper Sauce	1	bottle	24	2 oz.	68	68	bottles	3	5914619	$1.23	E	$29.61	$88.83	4	bottles
76	Basil	1	bottle	12	0.25 oz. plastic bottle	68	68	bottles	7	9242819	$0.00	E		$0.00	16	bottles
77	KOSHER		GROUP	PACK	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
78	Trail Mix - Tropical Treasures Snack Mix	24	lbs.	3	2 lb. bag	3	72	pounds	12	5730833	$5.25	E	$15.75	$189.00	0	pounds
79	Uneeda Biscuits	5	lbs.			3	12	pounds							-12	boxes
80	Dried Fruit	3	lbs.	10	10 lb. bag	3	9	pounds	1		$4.90	C	$49.00	$49.00	1	pounds
81	Pasta Mix (we've never found

Download a good one)

envelopes

-12

envelopes

FRESH KOSHER

GROUP

PACK

SIZE

GROUPS

NEEDS

CASES

CODE

PRICE

UNIT

PRICE

EXTRA

GROUPS

OVER

Tortillas - 10"

package

12 per package

packages

$2.49

Pkg.

$29.90

packages

Pita - 6"

package

12 oz - 12/package

packages

2404481

$1.83

$10.97

$43.88

packages

TOTAL =

$28,103Copy of the Food Planner Spreadsheet

Dynamic Menu Planning with Spreadsheets

Outdoor Ed — Mon, 18 May 2009 01:21:55 GMT

Revision 1 posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 5/17/2009 9:21:55 PM

by Rick Curtis

Download a Copy of the Food Planner Spreadsheet

	F	G	H	I
1	Order	Groups	>10	Kosher
2	71	68	46	3

A5 - Item Name
B5 - Amount that each group gets of this item.
C5 - How the item is packaged
D5 - How many per case
E5 - The size of each item
F5 - This cell takes its value from cell F2 with the formula =$F$2
G5 - Calculated field for now many of this item is needed. The formula is =B5*F5 or (Amount/group * Number of Groups)
H5 - Simply a duplication of cell C5 showing the unit - =$C$5
I5 - How many cases you are going to order. This is a field that you play with. By changing the number of cases you change the outcome further on (watch and you'll see).
J5 - The Product ID code
K5 - The price per item. This is a calculated field =M5/D5 or (Case price/ the number of items per case)
L5 - How the item is priced. In this case E stands for each as in $2.60 for each box.
M5 - The case price from the wholesaler.
N5 - The extended price from the formula =I5*M5 or (Cases ordered * Case Price). This price will change as you change the number of cases ordered in I5.
O5 - How many left over items you will have from the formula =(I5*D5)-G5 or (Cases Ordered* Number/case) - Number Needed for all groups). This will change as you change the number of cases ordered in I5.
P5 - How the item is packaged
Q5 - With some items we give groups over 10 some extra. In this case each group over 10 gets 1 extra box of granola. As a result we need to do a second calculation on the number of boxes we will have left over.
R5 - This is the second calculation for the number of left over boxes after adding in the extra food handed out. It is calculated using the formula =O5-($H$2*Q5) or (The number left over initially - (The Number of Groups over 10 * How many extra of this item each group over 10 gets))
S5 - Simply a duplication of cell C5 showing the unit =$C$5

FROSH TRIP FOOD LIST

Unit Codes: LB=pound, E=each, C=case, B=Box

Order

Groups

>10

Kosher

ITEM

NO. OF

ORDER

PRODUCT

UNIT

CASE

EXTENDED

10+

LEFT

BREAKFAST

AMOUNT/

GROUP

PER CASE

SIZE

GROUPS

TRIPS

NEED

CASES

CODE

PRICE

UNIT

PRICE

EXTRA

GROUPS

OVER

Heartland Granola

boxes

16 oz.

142

boxes

9242975

$2.60

$31.20

$561.60

boxes

Heartland Granola

Enter this Number

boxes

Enter number /case

Enter size/unit

=$F$2

=B5*F6

=$C$5

Enter Cases Ordered

=M5/D5

Enter Case Price

=I5*M5

=(I5*D5)-G5

=$C$5

Enter how many extra each group gets

=O5-($H$2*Q5)

=$C$5

Below is the full spreadsheet. Hope you don't get too dizzy.

	A	B	C	D		E	F	G	H	I	J	K	L	M	N	O	P	Q	R
1						Order	Groups	>10	Kosher
2						71	68	46	3
3	ITEM		AMOUNT/			NO. OF			ORDER	PRODUCT	UNIT		CASE	EXTENDED			10+	LEFT
4	BREAKFAST		GROUP	PER CASE	SIZE	GROUPS	TRIPS	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
5	Heartland Granola	2	boxes	12	16 oz.	71	142	boxes	18	9242975	$2.60	E	$31.20	$561.60	74	boxes	1	28	boxes
6	Cracklin' Oat Bran	2	boxes	14	17 oz.	71	142	boxes	12	7524259	$5.22	E	$73.13	$877.56	26	boxes
7	Mueslix - Kelloggs Crunchy	2	boxes	12	15.9 oz.	71	142	boxes	14	9242652	$4.97	E	$59.68	$835.52	26	boxes
8	Quaker Oatmeal Fruit Variety Flavor Packets	3	box	12	10 envelopes/ box	71	213	boxes	20	9242678	$3.63	E	$43.55	$871.00	27	boxes
9	Quaker Oatmeal Regular Variety Flavor Packets	4	box	12	10 envelopes/ box	71	284	boxes	26	9129289	$2.51	E	$30.08	$782.08	28	boxes
10	LUNCH		GROUP	PER CASE	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
11	Peanut Butter, Jiffy Chunky - plastic bottles	2	bottle	6	40 oz. plastic bottle	71	142	bottles	28		$4.28	E	$25.70	$719.60	26	bottles
12	Peanut Butter, Jiffy Creamy - plastic bottles	1	bottle	8	40 oz. plastic bottle	71	71	bottles	12	9242710	$5.34	E	$42.68	$512.16	25	bottles
13	Strawberry Jelly - Welch's squeezable plastic bottles (HDPE)	2	bottle	12	22 oz. plastic bottle	71	142	bottles	14		$1.52	E	$18.25	$255.50	26	bottles
14	Honey - plastic bottles	2	bear	12	12 oz. plastic bear	71	142	bears	14	8826893	$1.97	E	$23.64	$330.96	26	bears
15	Hummus - Fantastic Foods	2	boxes	10	7 oz.	71	142	boxes	17		$2.40	C	$24.00	$15.00	28	boxes
16	Tuna - chunk light	5	cans	24	12.5 oz/can	71	355	cans	19			C			101	cans	1	55	cans
17	Crackers - Stoned Wheat Thins	6	boxes	12	10 oz./box	68	408	boxes	46	Valley Brook	$1.84	B	$22.12	$1,017.52	144	boxes	2	52	boxes
18	Dried Apples - Packer	1.2	pounds	44	44 Ib. box	65	78	pounds	2	1967363	$2.87	LB	$126.28	$252.56	10	pounds
19	Dried Apricots - Packer	0.8	pounds	28	28 Ib. box	65	52	pounds	2	8115032	$2.49	LB	$69.59	$139.18	4	pounds
20	Dried Peaches	1	pounds	25	25 Ib. Box	65	65	pounds	3	3886421	$2.60	LB	$65.07	$195.21	10	pounds
21	Peanuts,Rstd.,Shelled, unsalted	7	pounds	50	50 pounds	68	476	pounds	12	5760970	$1.98	LB	$99.00	$1,188.00	124	pounds	1.25	66.5	pounds
22	Raisins Golden - seedless (1# for breakfast)	7	pounds	30	30 pound box	68	476	pounds	19	6126718	$1.77	LB	$53.11	$1,009.09	94	pounds	1.25	36.5	pounds
23	Harmony Snackums (M&M's)	7	pounds	19	19 pound box	68	476	pounds	29	5252390	$3.18	LB	$60.50	$1,754.50	75	pounds	1	29	pounds
24	Sunflower Seeds - roasted, unsalted	1	bags	3	2 pound bags	68	68	bags	37	4645453	$4.46	C	$13.37	$494.69	43	bags	0.5	20	bags
25	Fig Newtons	4	tubes	24	8 oz	71	284	boxes	14	4482162	$1.78	E	$42.60	$596.40	52	tubes
26	Granola bar - Nature Valley Peanut Butter	10	bar	144	0.8 oz	71	710	bars	6	4069704	$0.20	E	$27.09	$162.54	154	bars
27	Granola bar - Nature Valley Cinnamon	10	bar	144	0.8 oz	71	700	bars	6	4069712	$0.20	E	$27.39	$164.34	164	bars
28	Granola bar - Nature Valley Oats & Honey	10	bar	144	0.8 oz	71	700	bars	6	4069720	$0.20	E	$27.70	$166.20	164	bars
29	DINNER		GROUP	PER CASE	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
30	Canned Chicken	8	cans	12	10 oz.	71	568	cans	59	9242595	$3.79	E	$45.46	$2,682.14	140	cans	2	48	cans
31	Sysco Classic Angel Hair Noodles	3	pounds	12	1 pound	71	213	pounds		5016464	$15.00	E		$0.00	-213	pounds
32	Couscous - Near East Roasted Garlic and Olive Oil	3	boxes	12	5.8 oz.	71	213	boxes	24	5076765	$1.55		$18.56	$445.44	75	boxes	1	29
33	Canned Corn - Best Yet	1	can	24	15.25 oz.	68	68	cans	5		$0.52		$12.37	$61.85	52	cans
34	Canned Black Beans - Goya	1	can	24	15.5 oz.	68	68	cans	5		$0.63		$15.10	$75.50	52	cans
35	Contadina Pizza Sauce in Squeeze Bottle	2	bottle	12	15 oz. Squeeze bottle	71	142	bottles	13	Valley Brook	$1.36		$16.30	$211.90	14	bottles
36	Jello No-bake Peanut Butter Cup Pie	2	boxes	12	11.2 oz box	71	142	boxes	13		$2.76		$33.06	$429.78	14	0
37	Jello No-bake cheesecake	2	boxes	12	11.2 oz box	71	142	boxes	13		$2.63	C	$31.50	$409.50	14	0
38	Refried Beans - dried mix by Fantastic Foods	2	boxes	12	7 oz/box	71	142	boxes	13		$2.00	C	$24.00	$312.00	14	boxes
39	Pesto Pasta Blend Sauce Mix	4	envelopes	12	0.5 oz./envelope	70	280	envelopes	32		$1.31		$15.68	$501.76	104	envelopes	1	58	envelopes
40	Egg Noodles	1	bags		16 oz. bag	71								$0.00	0			0
41	Tomato Paste	2	cans		6 oz. can	71								$0.00	0			0
42	Fantastic Foods Dried Black Beans	1	box		7 oz. box	71		boxes						$0.00	0			0
43	Textured Vegetable Protein	1.5	cups			71								$0.00	0			0
45	Chili Powder - McCormick?	1	envelope			71								$0.00	0			0
45	MISCELLANEOUS		GROUP	PER CASE	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
46	Powdered Milk - nonfat	2	pounds	12	1 pounds	71	142	pounds	13	9242934	$4.92	LB	$59.05	$767.65	14	pounds
47	Brown Sugar	1	pounds	24	1 pounds	71	71	pounds	4	4281440	$0.61	LB	$14.68	$58.72	25	pounds
48	Lemonade Mix	1	bags	12	24 oz.	71	71	bags	7	4138632	$1.88	E	$22.54	$157.78	13	bags
49	Gatorade Powder Drink mix - Lemon Lime	1	bags	12	18 oz.	71	71	bags	7	9129453	$4.86	E	$58.27	$407.89	13	bags	1	-33	bags
50	Tang	1	bags	12	21 oz.	71	71	bags	7	9242785	$3.78	E	$45.31	$317.17	13	bags
51	Variety Pack of Herbal Tea Bags - Bigelow	1	box	6	28 bags	71	71	boxes	13	4041935	$3.02	E	$18.13	$235.69	7	boxes
52	Hot Chocolate - Nestles Cocoa Mix	2	bags	12	1.75 pounds	71	142	bags	14	4060760	$4.23	E	$50.70	$709.80	26	bags
53	FRESH - F = arrive Friday		GROUP	PER CASE	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
54	Cheddar Cheese - New York Mild waxed brick	4	bricks	6	2# waxed bricks	68	272	bricks	47	3162245	$8.50	LB	$50.98	$2,396.06	10	bricks
55	Flour Tortillas - 10"	4	pkg.	12	12 per package	68	272	pkg.	25	2386159	$1.90	Pkg.	$22.75	$568.75	28	pkg.
56	Squeeze Parkay	2	bottle	24	16 oz./plastic bottle	68	136	bottle	7		$1.78	E	$42.80	$299.60	32	bottle
57	Kronos Pita Bread 7 " - bulk pack	8	package	12	10 per package	68	544	count	55	1309863	$2.10	Pkg.	$25.17	$1,384.35	116	count	2	24	count
58	Apples - Red Delicious 88 count	18	count	88	count	68	1224	count	17		$0.41	E	$35.82	$608.94	272	count	3	134	count
59	Parmesan Cheese - cardboard container	1	can	12	3 oz./can	71	71	cans	7		$4.02	E	$48.25	$337.75	13	cans
60	Pepperoni	1	stick	10	1 lb. Sticks	68	68	sticks	7	1253699	$3.82	E	$38.20	$267.40	2	sticks
61	Oranges - Valencia 72 count	18	count	72	count	68	1224	count	21		$0.28	E	$20.00	$420.00	288	count	4	104	count
62	Onions - #1	5	count	50	50 lb. = 150 count	68	340	count	3		$0.28	LB	$14.00	$42.00	110	count	1	64	count
63	Green Peppers - medium	5	count	28	28 lb. = 75 count	68	340	count	6		$0.61	LB	$17.00	$102.00	110	count	1	64	count
64	Garlic cloves	1	clove	40	5 pound = 40 cloves	68	68	cloves	2		$0.21	E	$8.25	$16.50	12	cloves
65	STORAGE & MISCELLANEOUS		GROUP	PER CASE	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
66	Ziplock Bags - gallon	0.25	boxes	9	boxes/40 count	71	17.75	boxes	3		$3.06	E	$27.56	$82.68	9.25	boxes
67	Ziplock Bags - quart	0.25	boxes	12	boxes/32 count	71	17.75	boxes	3		$2.53	E	$30.40	$91.20	18.25	boxes
68					right number per box?
69	SPICES		GROUP	PER CASE	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
70	Tostitos Mild Salsa	1	bottles	9	28 oz. plastic bottle	71	71	bottles	10	9242645	$2.97	E	$26.75	$267.50	19	bottles
71	Cinnamon - ground	1	bottles
72	Salt & Pepper - rotate lids	1	set bottles	12	2 oz. containers	71	71	bottles	8		$1.38	E	$16.50	$132.00	25	container
73	Oregano	1	bottle	12	0.75 oz. plastic bottle	71	71	bottles	7	9242868	$0.00	E		$0.00	13	bottles
74	Cumin	1	bottle	12		71	71	bottles	7			E		$0.00	13	bottles
75	Tabasco Pepper Sauce	1	bottle	24	2 oz.	68	68	bottles	3	5914619	$1.23	E	$29.61	$88.83	4	bottles
76	Basil	1	bottle	12	0.25 oz. plastic bottle	68	68	bottles	7	9242819	$0.00	E		$0.00	16	bottles
77	KOSHER		GROUP	PACK	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
78	Trail Mix - Tropical Treasures Snack Mix	24	lbs.	3	2 lb. bag	3	72	pounds	12	5730833	$5.25	E	$15.75	$189.00	0	pounds
79	Uneeda Biscuits	5	lbs.			3	12	pounds							-12	boxes
80	Dried Fruit	3	lbs.	10	10 lb. bag	3	9	pounds	1		$4.90	C	$49.00	$49.00	1	pounds
81	Pasta Mix (we've never found a good one)	4	envelopes			3	12	envelopes							-12	envelopes
82	FRESH KOSHER		GROUP	PACK	SIZE	GROUPS	FT	NEEDS	CASES	CODE	PRICE	UNIT	PRICE	PRICE	EXTRA		GROUPS	OVER
83	Tortillas - 10"	4	package	12	12 per package	3	12	packages	1		$2.49	Pkg.	$29.90	$29.90	0	packages
84	Pita - 6"	8	package	6	12 oz - 12/package	3	24	packages	4	2404481	$1.83	E	$10.97	$43.88	0	packages
85													TOTAL =	$28,103

Technology & Outdoor Education

Outdoor Ed — Mon, 18 May 2009 00:56:25 GMT

Current Revision posted to Articles by Outdoor Ed on 5/17/2009 8:56:25 PM

This section is for articles on using technology in outdoor education programs

Articles

Outdoor Law: The Applicability of Good Samaritan Laws To Those Trained In Wilderness Medicine

Outdoor Law: The Applicability of Good Samaritan Laws To Those Trained In Wilderness Medicine

by Rufus Brown Esq.

I. Introduction

II. Background Principles.

1. There is generally no duty to render emergency assistance:

2. Exceptions:

3. The standard of care for a person providing emergency services:

III. The Good Samaritan Law Provides Qualified Immunity.

IV. The Requirements that Must be Met to Obtain the Benefits of the Act.

1. A person must act "voluntarily."

2. Without the expectation of monetary or other compensation.

3. In the event of an emergency.

4. Without objection.

V. The Good Samaritan Law May Also Legalize Emergency Medical Procedures.

Copyright © 2010 Rufus Brown May not be reproduced without permission of the author.

Outdoor Law: The Applicability of Good Samaritan Laws To Those Trained In Wilderness Medicine

by Rufus Brown Esq.

I. Introduction

II. Background Principles.

1. There is generally no duty to render emergency assistance:

2. Exceptions:

3. The standard of care for a person providing emergency services:

III. The Good Samaritan Law Provides Qualified Immunity.

IV. The Requirements that Must be Met to Obtain the Benefits of the Act.

1. A person must act "voluntarily."

2. Without the expectation of monetary or other compensation.

3. In the event of an emergency.

4. Without objection.

V. The Good Samaritan Law May Also Legalize Emergency Medical Procedures.

Copyright © 2010 Rufus Brown May not be reproduced without permission of the author.

Outdoor Law: Basic Risk Management Concepts for Outdoor Programs

Outdoor Law: Basic Risk Management Concepts for Outdoor Programs

by Rufus E. Brown, Esq.

I. Liability Issues

A. General Negligence

B. Premises Liability

C. Americans with Disability Act of 1990, 42 U.S.C. Sec. 12101, et seq. (the “ADA”).

D. Who is Liable?

E. To Whom?

F. For What?

II. Risk Management

A. Choosing the Organization

B. Some Basics for the Organization

C. Releases or Participation Agreements

D. Insurance

III. Conclusion

Copyright © 2010 Rufus Brown May not be reproduced without permission of the author.

Outdoor Law: Basic Risk Management Concepts for Outdoor Programs

Outdoor Law: Basic Risk Management Concepts for Outdoor Programs

by Rufus E. Brown, Esq.

I. Liability Issues

A. General Negligence

B. Premises Liability

C. Americans with Disability Act of 1990, 42 U.S.C. Sec. 12101, et seq. (the “ADA”).

D. Who is Liable?

E. To Whom?

F. For What?

II. Risk Management

A. Choosing the Organization

B. Some Basics for the Organization

C. Releases or Participation Agreements

D. Insurance

III. Conclusion

Copyright © 2010 Rufus Brown

Outdoor Law: Basic Risk Management Concepts for Outdoor Programs

by Rufus E. Brown, Esq.

I. Liability Issues

A. General Negligence

B. Premises Liability

C. Americans with Disability Act of 1990, 42 U.S.C. Sec. 12101, et seq. (the “ADA”).

D. Who is Liable?

E. To Whom?

F. For What?

II. Risk Management

A. Choosing the Organization

B. Some Basics for the Organization

C. Releases or Participation Agreements

D. Insurance

Copyright © 2010 Rufus Brown
May not be reproduced without permission of the author.

Copyright © 2010 Rufus Brown
May not be reproduced without permission of the author.

Copyright © 2010 Rufus Brown
May not be reproduced without permission of the author.

by Bill Frederick
School for Field Studies

by Bill Frederick
School for Field Studies